Abstract: Research has indicated that human morality is associated with cognitive ability. However, morality is not a unified concept but rather is a multi-faceted concept. Moral Foundation Theory suggests that human beings have at least five innate moral foundations: Care/Injury, Fairness/Deception, Loyalty/Betrayal, Authority/Subversion, and Sacred/Fallen. The present study aimed to investigate the associations between these moral values and cognitive ability. A large-scale cross-sectional survey was conducted online, which was completed by a total of 4863 Japanese adults (2922 females, 1935 males, and 6 “other;” Mage = 48.78, SDage = 10.93, range 20–70). Correlation and multiple regression analyses revealed that cognitive ability was positively linked to Care/Injury, Fairness/Deception, and Sacred/Fallen. Notably, the positive associations of cognitive ability with Loyalty/Betrayal and Authority/Subversion were statistically significant only for people below the age of approximately 50. These findings indicate that although moral foundations are based on emotions and intuitions, they are substantially associated with cognitive ability. In addition, the positive direction of associations of cognitive ability with Loyalty/Betrayal and Authority/Subversion was inconsistent with previous findings in Western countries, which suggests that these associations are culture-dependent.
Keywords: Cognitive abilitySyllogism-solvingMoral foundationMoral decision-makingAgeJapanese
4. Discussion
The present study examined the associations between moral foundations and cognitive ability and the moderating effect of age on these
associations using a large Japanese adult sample. Cognitive ability was
positively associated with individualizing foundations (Care/Injury and
Fairness/Deception) in this study. This result is basically consistent
with previous findings (Carl, 2014, 2015; Deary et al., 2008; Schoon
et al., 2010; Van Leeuwen et al., 2014). In addition, cognitive ability
was also positively correlated with binding foundations (Loyalty/Betrayal, Authority/Subversion, and Sacred/Fallen). These associations
were inconsistent with previous Western findings (Pennycook et al.,
2014; Sidanius et al., 1996; Stankov, 2009). However, as Kemmelmeier
(2008) noted, the associations between cognitive ability and
conservatism-related values might be moderated by environmental
political interest. Since Japanese people, especially young ones, have
among the lowest political interest and engagement rates (Cabinet
Office, 2014), the positive associations of cognitive ability with binding
foundations were expected. Hence, the present hypotheses on the
moral-cognitive ability associations were supported by this study. As for
age as a moderator, interaction terms were significant for all moral
foundations. A subsequent simple slope test showed that the links to
each moral foundation were stronger for younger people. Moreover, the
Johnson–Neyman test revealed that the moral-cognitive ability links
became significant among people below the age of approximately 50 for
binding foundations other than Sacred/Fallen. Therefore, the present
age-as-moderator hypothesis was partially supported in this study.
Five moral foundations are considered as innate psychological
systems that give rise to moral intuitions throughout the world (Graham
et al., 2009, 2011, 2013). According to the MFT, the five intuitive
systems are respectively linked to distinct moral values: Care/Injury,
Fairness/Deception, Loyalty/Betrayal, Authority/Subversion, and
Sacred/Fallen (Graham et al., 2009, 2011, 2013). The MFT focuses on
the role of emotional intutions in determining moral judgment and
insists that moral judgements derive almost entirely from intuitive
processes (Graham et al., 2013). That is, although they do not deny the
role of cognitive reasoning processes (Graham et al., 2011), deliberate
cognitive reasoning is not overly assumed in MFT. The present results
showed that higher cognitive ability is linked to higher levels of every
moral foundation, especially Care/Injury, Fairness/Deception, and
Sacred/Fallen. While the present results basically conformed to previous findings (Carl, 2014, 2015; Deary et al., 2008; Schoon et al.,
2010; Van Leeuwen et al., 2014), the underlying reason why these
foundations are positively related to cognitive ability remains unknown. Moreover, the present study showed that age exerted a moderating effect on the associations between cognitive ability and moral
foundations. In particular, with respect to Loyalty/Betrayal and Authority/Subversion, the associations with cognitive ability were observed only in younger people. Considering that Japanese young people
show low political interest and engagement (Cabinet Office, 2014), this
age-by-cognitive ability interaction is consistent with previous research
findings (Kemmelmeier, 2008; Kemmelmeier et al., 1999; Krosnick,
1988, 1990).
The associations between cognitive ability and moral foundations
observed in this study can be interpreted from the viewpoint of social
learning or enculturation. According to MFT, moral foundations are
basically innate (Graham et al., 2011, 2013). However, they also note
that these foundations are malleable, and there is room for cultural
learning (Graham et al., 2013). Cognitive ability is a fundamental tool
for human learning, and is also a useful tool for social learning
(Christie, 2017). Although there are some differences in the moral values regarded as important among various cultures or societies, care
and justice are seen as basic morality in at least developed countries.
Children socially learn their importance as moral principles and become
socialized (Smetana, 1999). Cognitive ability plays an important role in
this social learning process, which promotes positive associations with
Care/Injury and Fairness/Deception, that is, individualizing foundations.
Sacred/Fallen is considered as one of the binding foundations
(Graham et al., 2009). However, the present results on Sacred/Fallen
were not consistent with Loyalty/Betrayal and Authority/Subversion,
but rather similar with Care/Injury and Fairness/Deception. Considering the raw inter-scale correlations among moral foundations,
Sacred/Fallen can be construed as more closely associated with individualizing foundations in Japanese people. Previous research also
showed that openness to experience and honesty-humility are positively
associated with Care/Injury, Fairness/Deception and Sacred/Fallen in
Japanese (Kawamoto et al., 2017). Based on these findings, the location
of Sacred/Fallen in moral foundation factor structure for Japanese
people may be different from that for Westerners.
The present results pointing to age as a moderator of the associations between cognitive ability and moral foundations are novel. In
particular, the associations with Loyalty/Betrayal and Authority/
Subversion were observed only for people below the age of 50. Loyalty/
Betrayal and Authority/Subversion are linked to social conservatism
(Graham et al., 2009, 2011). People with little political interest tend to
have less opportunities to think about and discuss political issues; this
tendency is conducive to maintaining high consistency between values
and beliefs (Kemmelmeier et al., 1999; Krosnick, 1988, 1990). Besides,
Japanese young people have little political interest and engagement
(Cabinet Office, 2014). Considering these previous findings, Japanese
young people may passively accept conservative values that are widely
endorsed in the Japanese society without questioning them, since their
surroundings are characterized by low political interest. This holds
especially true for young individuals with relatively high cognitive
ability, since the processes involved in learning social values or norms
necessitate high cognitive ability (Buckholtz & Marois, 2012; Christie,
2017). Therefore, it is plausible to argue that younger and smarter
people are more likely to passively accept conservative values, which
are widely endorsed in Japan, without analyzing them.
The present study had some strengths including a sufficient sample
size and the use of a Japanese sample. As research on moral foundations
has been mainly conducted in Western countries, the present results
extended previous findings. Despite these strengths, this study also had
some limitations. First, we relied on self-reported moral foundation
scores; mono-rater measures of psychological traits are vulnerable to
random and systematic errors (Campbell & Fiske, 1959). Future research ought to use other self-rating measures or other methods to assess people's morality. Second, the present sample was composed only
of Japanese individuals. Accordingly, future research should recruit
culturally and ethnically diverse samples. Third, cognitive ability was
measured with the BAROCO Short, which has been well validated but is
a relatively simple test. In order to further examine the associations
between moral foundations and detailed facets of cognitive ability,
future research should use tests that can capture the multiple facets of
cognitive ability.
This study offered the positive associations between binding foundations and cognitive ability. Notably, the associations were significantly moderated by the participants' age. These findings were
novel, and additionally, suggested that the associations between moral
values and cognitive ability could be modified by external factors. This
study focused only on the participants' age as a moderator, however,
future research should explore possible interactions between cognitive
ability and other factors. In addition, the present findings implied that
lower political interest predispose people to accept moral values that
widely prevailed in their society without thinking. We can say that it is
important to encourage younger people to get an interest in their society and politics in education.
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