I Don’t Want You to ‘Believe’ Me. I Want You to Listen. Agnes Callard

I Don’t Want You to ‘Believe’ Me. I Want You to Listen. Agnes Callard. The New York Times, Nov. 30, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/30/opinion/i-dont-want-you-to-believe-me-i-want-you-to-listen.html

I fear that the more I tell you, the less you will understand who I am.

I am not a private person — quite the opposite — but I do have two secrets. The first concerns some Bad Events that happened to me long ago (yes, it’s the sort of thing you are thinking of), and the second is an unrelated Fact about my neurological makeup.

Let me be clear: I am not ashamed of either of these things. Keeping them secret creates, in me, an uncomfortable feeling, as though I were hiding something, as though I were ashamed, and that bugs me all the time, like a scratchy tag in my clothing. But I can’t tell you what The Fact is, because you won’t believe me; and I can't tell you about The Events, because you will.

I have barely told you anything about The Events, but I suspect that you have already started believing. You want to be someone who believes women; you see this as the belief-challenge you have been waiting for; you want to rise to it. When I first told a therapist about The Events, she said: “Of course. In retrospect it makes perfect sense of so many things …”

Later she apologized for this as therapeutic overreach. Even therapists can’t help themselves — they are off to the races, believing and believing. On this topic, so much gets packaged into “being believed” that I fear the more I tell you, the less you will understand me.

I don't want you to think you know the meaning of The Events; I don’t want to be classified as damaged; I don’t want you to feel good about yourself for believing me; I don’t want you to feel sorry for me; and most of all, I don’t want you to praise my courage for “coming forward” or for “surviving.” The prospect of receiving praise or honor for this revelation fills with me with rage — when I imagine your admiration, I immediately imagine throwing it back in your face.

The Fact I’d like to tell you has to do with a difference between how we — you and I — think. But to get specific about this difference, I have to use a word you associate with people who don’t talk, who can’t take care of themselves, whose inner lives seem utterly obscure to you, people who harm themselves, people you struggle to see as human, people whose existence you see as a tragedy.

And you will find this comparison preposterous. You will tell me I shouldn’t use “that word,” you will helpfully offer me milder alternatives. You might acknowledge that I’m “quirky” or “idiosyncratic” — in a good way! — and that a few of those quirks may superficially resemble those people. But I have a professional career, a family. I can’t be like them. (Ask yourself: how much knowledge would you need, really, to be certain of this?)

You might be willing to budge a little if you could hear it from some medical professionals — though one might not be enough. You’d need a second and third opinion. Notice that if I told you I had cancer or diabetes or depression, or for that matter that I was left-handed, you would not insist on seeing my papers. You would not be inclined to think I was faking my left-handedness by having trained myself to use my left hand; or that I resembled depressed people only “in some respects.”

In the case of The Events, you are eager to assign victim status to me; in the case of The Fact, you are wary of assigning it to me. For you, there is only one question: how much suffering can she legitimately lay claim to?

You are so busy trying to answer this question — trying to serve as judge in the pain/suffering/disadvantage Olympics — that you cannot hear anything I am trying to tell you. And that means I can’t talk to you. No one can sincerely assert words whose meaning she knows will be garbled by the lexicon of her interlocutor. I don’t want privacy, but you’ve forced it onto me.

You might wonder why I have to tell you these things. Couldn’t I find a supportive community of people who endured similar Events, and wouldn’t I be believed by other Fact-Bearers? Yes, and individual connections of this kind are very valuable, but at the group level this kind of support has never worked for me.

Being surrounded by people who are supposedly like me inevitably leads me to feel maximally “different.” Probably my failure to benefit from such communities is a sign that I have not suffered so much, and deserve very little victim credit. So be it!

Solidarity is not my thing, openness is. It is a consequence of The Fact, for me, that I lean toward transparency in all contexts: I have to consciously prevent myself from oversharing (even more than I do), and I am honest from necessity rather than virtue.

There is a reason for all of this, which is that I am bad — really bad, you cannot imagine how bad — at figuring things out on my own. If I take too many steps in reasoning without the intervention of another person, I go very far wrong. So I have accustomed myself to reasoning in public as much as I can, to making sure to expose my mistakes to correction.

I know that I don’t know what corner assistance might come from. I don’t want to confide in a select group of people who grumble among themselves about how you misunderstand “us.” I want to talk to you, any and all of you, freely, so you can help me stop misunderstanding myself.

The truth is that I don’t know the meaning of The Events, for my life. Isn’t it at least possible that they simply don’t have any meaning? Or maybe the meaning will change once I am allowed to speak them out loud? Perhaps I really am scarred for life, but do we have to assume that from the outset?

If I could talk it through, I might have a hope of figuring this out. Because that is mostly how I figure out all the difficult problems of my life: I talk about them to whoever is available, whenever the problems seem relevant to something else I am thinking about; I listen; I rethink; I write; I circle back and write something else; over and over again; and over time I develop a stable picture.

With The Events, I am at sea. For so long I did not even allow myself to speak them to myself. Now that I can, it chafes at me that you have decided that if I want to talk about them with you, I have to follow your rules, and let you trample all over me. Perhaps more people who have experienced Events would talk about them with you if they thought you would do less “believing” and more listening.

Factwise, this is what I want to know: what, if anything, ties together the “superficial” differences in how I dress, how I talk, how my mind jumps around, my repetitive movements, my sensitivities, the kinds of patterns I see and the kinds I miss, my obsessions, my literal-mindedness, my odd oscillations between needing to be alone and needing to be with others, between striking you as charming and coming off as unbearable. Why do I struggle so much to understand which emotion I am feeling? Why am I so bad at predicting what you will find offensive?

The Fact makes me part of a group of people whose boundaries are amorphous; we do not all recognize one another, and even when we do, we are not sure what we have in common. You would like to manage this situation in a very specific way: First, carve off what you take to be the “most severe cases,” and find a cure that prevents any more of them from arising.

Second, assimilate the rest — people like me — as “normal,” or as normal enough, so long as you are sufficiently tolerant and accommodating. But I suspect all the tolerance and accommodation in the world won’t make me normal. Do we have to pretend that I am? Is that the condition on which you are willing to engage with me? And couldn’t a group of people have something in common even if “degree of suffering” isn’t that thing?

I could use your help — not your support, not your approval, not your reassurance but your help as an open and thoughtful audience for these difficult questions. But you won’t help me, because you won’t listen to what I’m trying to say, because all you care about is how much victim status I deserve. You are really letting me down.

Agnes Callard (@AgnesCallard), an associate professor of philosophy at the University of Chicago and the author of “Aspiration: The Agency of Becoming,” writes about public philosophy at The Point magazine.

The topological changes in rich-club organization provide novel insight into sex-specific effects on white matter connections that underlie a potential network mechanism of sex-based differences in cognitive function

Sex Differences in Anatomical Rich-Club and Structural–Functional Coupling in the Human Brain Network. Shuo Zhao, Gongshu Wang, Ting Yan, Jie Xiang, Xuexue Yu, Hong Li, Bin Wang. Cerebral Cortex, bhaa335, Nov 24 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhaa335

Abstract: Structural and functional differences between the brains of female and male adults have been well documented. However, potential sex differences in the patterns of rich-club organization and the coupling between their structural connectivity (SC) and functional connectivity (FC) remain to be determined. In this study, functional magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor imaging techniques were combined to examine sex differences in rich-club organization. Females had a stronger SC-FC coupling than males. Moreover, stronger SC-FC coupling in the females was primarily located in feeder connections and non–rich-club nodes of the left inferior frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobe and the right superior frontal gyrus and superior parietal gyrus, whereas higher coupling strength in males was primarily located in rich-club connections and rich-club node of the right insula, and non-rich-club nodes of the left hippocampus and the right parahippocampal gyrus. Sex-specific patterns in correlations were also shown between SC-FC coupling and cognitive function, including working memory and reasoning ability. The topological changes in rich-club organization provide novel insight into sex-specific effects on white matter connections that underlie a potential network mechanism of sex-based differences in cognitive function.

Keywords: cognitive function, rich-club organization, SC-FC coupling, sex differences, topological properties

Discussion

We examined changes in the patterns of rich-club organization in structural networks and functional brain dynamics between females and males. The main findings were as follows: 1) We found increased values of the topological properties cost, Eg, Eloc, and strength in male versus female adults. 2) Compared with the male adults, the female adults had a greater strength in the SC-FC coupling. Moreover, the females had a negative correlation between the SC-FC coupling and the cost of the topological properties, whereas the males had a positive correlation between the SC-FC coupling and the cost of the topological properties. 3) Different regions of SC-FC coupling were observed between females and males. A higher SC-FC coupling in the females than males was primarily located in the non-rich-club nodes, including regions of the left IFG and IPL and the right SFG and SPG. A higher SC-FC coupling in the males than females was located not only in the rich-club nodes, including the right INS, but also in non–rich-club nodes, including the left hippocampus and the right PHG. 4) A sex-specific correlation was found between SC-FC coupling in the brain network and cognitive performance. The females had a negative correlation between local SC-FC coupling and working memory, whereas the males had a positive correlation between rich-club SC-FC coupling and reasoning ability. We thus conclude that the pattern differences in the correlations between SC-FC coupling and cognitive function were affected by sex differences, which may help to reveal a potential network mechanism of sex differences in cognitive function.

In this study, when a range of degrees k from 5 to 10 was used, the males had higher rich-club coefficients than the females, which reflected the existence of different rich-club organization in the brain topological properties between females and males. That is, increased effects were found with the topological properties of cost, Eg, Eloc, and strength in the males versus the females. In particular, the strength and cost of feeder and local but not rich-club connections was increased. These findings were consistent with previous studies (e.g., Wang et al. 2019a) that found higher levels of cost, density, and strength among topological properties in males than in females. These differences between males and females exhibited typical rich-club properties, revealing greater global efficiency, local efficiency, and strength in males but a more economical rich-club architecture in females.

Importantly, the present study combined DTI techniques and functional resting-state techniques and found a greater coupling strength in the SC-FC in the females than males. Although previous studies (e.g., Zell et al. 2015; Gur and Gur 2017; Ritchie et al. 2018) have reported differences between males and females in the topological properties of structural connections or functional connections, the present study provides further evidence for sex differences in the relationship between SC and FC coupling, revealing greater SC-FC coupling strength in females than in males. Compared with males, females had greater coupling strength in the rich-club and local but not feeder SC-FC coupling. Moreover, this strength was associated with the cost of topological properties in the rich-club and local coupling. Specifically, the correlation between SC-FC coupling strength and the cost of local connections was negative with females, whereas the correlation between SC-FC coupling strength and the cost of rich-club connections was positive with males. Therefore, the increase in SC-FC coupling in females was mainly concentrated in rich-club and local connections that correspond to more stringent and less dynamic brain function (Honey et al. 2009; van den Heuvel et al. 2009) and influence the cost of rich-club architecture compared to that of males. Previous studies (Collin et al. 2014) have proposed that information integration is influenced by the architecture of neural systems, which may be driven by a potential “trade-off” between cost and communication efficiency, known as the cost-efficiency trade-off of neural circuitry formation. Based on this proposition, the present finding of difference between males and females in SC-FC coupling may contribute to a more accurate understanding of sex differences in the dynamic changes and information integration in brain network structures. Additionally, as previous studies have reported that SC-FC coupling increased with age (Supekar et al. 2010; Grayson et al. 2014) and was disrupted in the context of clinical disease (van den Heuvel et al. 2013; Collin et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2019b; Cao et al. 2020), the present findings might also provide a future direction to examine the age-related changes and disease-related disruptions in SC-FC coupling in different sexes.

Moreover, a difference in SC-FC coupling was found between females and males in the nodes of the rich-club organization. Specifically, greater SC-FC coupling in the females was primarily located in the non-rich-club nodes, including the left IFG and right SFG in the frontal lobe and the left IPL and right SPG in the parietal lobe, whereas greater SC-FC coupling in the males was located not only in the rich-club nodes, including the right INS, but also in non-rich-club nodes, including the left hippocampus and right PHG. All of these regions are the limbic system. The findings were largely consistent with a previous report that the structural properties of these regions were different between females and males. Gong et al. (2009), using diffusion MRI tractography data, revealed a lower efficiency in the IFG in females than males. However, a higher regional efficiency was shown in females than males in the SPG (Gur et al. 1999). Ritchie et al. (2018) also found a larger brain volume in the right superior parietal region in females than males but no difference in the left inferior parietal region, although a greater connectivity in the IPL was reported by Gong et al. (2011). All of these regions are located in the dorsal frontoparietal network and participate in various functions, including spatial attention (Corbetta and Shulman 2002; Fellrath et al. 2016). Additionally, the INS is an important hub region associated with spatial cognition, which exhibited greater connectivity (Gong et al. 2011) but lower FA values (Chou et al. 2011) in males than females. The PHG and hippocampus are located in the limbic system and play an important role in memory. Using the tract-based spatial statistic (TBSS) method, Chou et al. (2010) showed that females had higher FA values in the PHG but lower FA values in the hippocampus. Ritchie et al. (2018) found a higher thickness in the PHG in females, but a higher volume and surface area in males. Based on these findings, our results extend the identification of sex differences to SC-FC coupling. We suggest that the advantage of this approach is the differences in SC-FC coupling in rich-club and non-rich-club nodes between females and males. As previous studies have reported sex differences in cognitive performance, including memory (Harness et al. 2008; Levine et al. 2016), spatial attention and spatial cognition (Vaquero et al. 2004; Levine et al. 2016), we therefore proposed that SC-FC coupling in females and males in the different nodal regions between rich-club and non-rich-club nodes represents submodular organization for specific functional domains that may exhibit optimized patterns, leading to improved performance in corresponding cognitive functions. However, other characteristics, such as brain volume differences, are also likely to account for sex differences in specific cognitive functions.

In this study, we also examined the relationship between SC-FC coupling and cognitive performance in females and males. Specifically, we found a negative correlation between local SC-FC coupling and working memory in the females, whereas a positive correlation was shown between rich-club SC-FC coupling and reasoning ability in the males. Previous studies have reported that males scored significantly higher on reasoning ability (Quereshi and Seitz 1993; Lakin 2013) and that females scored significantly higher on working memory (Harness et al. 2008) in cognitive performance. For example, van der Sluis et al. (2006) reported that males scored higher on reasoning ability, while females scored higher on working memory, on the Dutch WAIS-III. Neuroimaging research has also reported sex differences in cognitive performance, including working memory and reasoning ability. Specifically, a meta-analysis study (Hill et al. 2014) found that males had more activity in a distributed network including parietal regions, while females had activity in more limbic regions including the amygdala and hippocampus, as well as prefrontal regions including the right inferior frontal gyrus. Moreover, one team (Ritchie et al. 2018) showed, using a large sample (2750 females and 2466 males), that sex differences in reasoning ability were associated with brain volume and surface area. The present results extended these findings in the SC-FC coupling in the rich-club organization that showed sex differences, suggesting reduced working memory in females and increased reasoning ability in males was associated with the females having less stringent and more dynamic brain function in the local connections, and the males having more stringent and less dynamic brain function in the rich-club connections. Given the importance of working memory and reasoning ability as pivotal cognitive functions in the intellectual domain, these observations suggest that sex differences in SC-FC coupling linked to reduced working memory and increased reasoning ability are closely related to the intellectual domain, potentially helping to explain how and why males and females differ in intelligence and academic achievement. 

Limitations.

The present study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the sample size of subjects was relatively small. Regarding the limitation of the dataset, it is important to validate our findings by replicating our analyses using a larger sample of subjects. Second, in this study, we analyzed the coupling between SC and FC, which was limited to the connections with nonzero SC and FC. Although a strong FC also exists between regions with indirect SC (Honey et al. 2009), there is currently no way to analyze the associations between FC and indirect SC because of the limitations of the method. The aim of this study was simply to investigate differences in SC-FC coupling between females and males. Future research should examine the indirect connections to analyze the SC-FC coupling between females and males. Furthermore, this study did not sufficiently examine the correlations between the strength of the SC-FC coupling and working memory and reasoning ability in females and males. We used LNS and MR scores to examine the correlations between the strength of the SC-FC coupling and working memory and reasoning ability in females and males. Given that LNS and MR measures only the working memory ability to retrieve auditory information and nonverbal spatial reasoning ability, future studies should also evaluate the relationships between visual working memory and verbal reasoning ability.

In summary, this study found that sex significantly affected the rich-club organization of structural networks in individuals with typical development. Differences in the male versus female adults were shown with the topological properties of cost, Eg, Eloc, and strength. Importantly, a greater coupling strength of the SC-FC in females versus males was observed. Moreover, higher SC-FC coupling in the females was primarily located in the non-rich-club nodes, whereas higher SC-FC coupling in the males was located not only in the rich-club but also in non–rich-club nodes. Our results also found different patterns across sexes in the correlations between SC-FC coupling and cognitive function, including working memory and reasoning ability. Our findings of the topological changes in rich-club organization provide novel insight into sex differences on white matter connections that may underlie a potential network mechanism of sex-based differences in cognitive function.

The strong underrepresentation of women in math-related fields is more pronounced in more egalitarian & more developed countries; could be due to stronger stereotypes relating math primarily to men in those societies

Gender stereotypes can explain the gender-equality paradox. Thomas Breda et al. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, November 23, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2008704117

Significance: Recent research has found that the strong underrepresentation of women in math-related fields is more pronounced in more egalitarian and more developed countries. This pattern has been called the “gender-equality paradox.” We show that stereotypes relating math primarily to men are actually stronger in more egalitarian and more developed countries and that they mediate the link between development and segregation across fields of study. The mechanisms connecting socioeconomic development to the strengthening of these stereotypes and the gendering of math-related fields are discussed. Results suggest that gender occupational segregation can be reduced but will not decrease by itself as societies become more developed. Appropriate policies are therefore needed to limit this segregation or its impact on gender inequality.

Abstract: The so-called “gender-equality paradox” is the fact that gender segregation across occupations is more pronounced in more egalitarian and more developed countries. Some scholars have explained this paradox by the existence of deeply rooted or intrinsic gender differences in preferences that materialize more easily in countries where economic constraints are more limited. In line with a strand of research in sociology, we show instead that it can be explained by cross-country differences in essentialist gender norms regarding math aptitudes and appropriate occupational choices. To this aim, we propose a measure of the prevalence and extent of internalization of the stereotype that “math is not for girls” at the country level. This is done using individual-level data on the math attitudes of 300,000 15-y-old female and male students in 64 countries. The stereotype associating math to men is stronger in more egalitarian and developed countries. It is also strongly associated with various measures of female underrepresentation in math-intensive fields and can therefore entirely explain the gender-equality paradox. We suggest that economic development and gender equality in rights go hand-in-hand with a reshaping rather than a suppression of gender norms, with the emergence of new and more horizontal forms of social differentiation across genders.

Keywords: gender gap in STEMgender stereotypessocioeconomic development

Check also Sex Differences in Anatomical Rich-Club and Structural–Functional Coupling in the Human Brain Network. Shuo Zhao, Gongshu Wang, Ting Yan, Jie Xiang, Xuexue Yu, Hong Li, Bin Wang. Cerebral Cortex, bhaa335, Nov 24 2020.  https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2020/11/the-topological-changes-in-rich-club.html

Psychiatric disorders: While many factors contribute to risk, epidemiological evidence suggests that the genetic contribution carries the highest risk burden; the increased rates are nonspecific

Risk in Relatives, Heritability, SNP-Based Heritability, and Genetic Correlations in Psychiatric Disorders: A Review. Bart M.L. Baselmans et al. Biological Psychiatry, Volume 89, Issue 1, January 1 2021, Pages 11-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.05.034

Rolf Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1333344147185541120

Abstract: The genetic contribution to psychiatric disorders is observed through the increased rates of disorders in the relatives of those diagnosed with disorders. These increased rates are observed to be nonspecific; for example, children of those with schizophrenia have increased rates of schizophrenia but also a broad range of other psychiatric diagnoses. While many factors contribute to risk, epidemiological evidence suggests that the genetic contribution carries the highest risk burden. The patterns of inheritance are consistent with a polygenic architecture of many contributing risk loci. The genetic studies of the past decade have provided empirical evidence identifying thousands of DNA variants associated with psychiatric disorders. Here, we describe how these latest results are consistent with observations from epidemiology. We provide an R tool (CHARRGe) to calculate genetic parameters from epidemiological parameters and vice versa. We discuss how the single nucleotide polymorphism–based estimates of heritability and genetic correlation relate to those estimated from family records.

Keywords: Family register dataGenetic correlationGWASHeritabilityPsychiatric geneticsRisk in relatives

Conclusions

In this capstone narrative, we bring together the methods and results that summarize the genetic contribution to psychiatric disorders and the genetic relationship between them. We note that we use the common assumption that psychiatric disorder diagnosis definitions are underpinned by a consistent polygenic biology. If this is not true—for example, if a single clinical diagnosis is allocated to one or more independent or correlated biological diseases—then further thought is needed to interpret the estimates of heritability and genetic correlation. Such a scenario could explain (41), in part, the large difference between heritability and SNP-based heritability (Figure 1) in addition to contributions from rare variants and low LD between genotyped and causal variants. Previously, we concluded that only with large GWAS sample sizes and extensive clinical data (40,41) would we have the information needed to examine this interesting question. Despite this caveat, multiple results from GWAS data confirm that individuals allocated a specific diagnosis are genetically more similar, on average, than those allocated other diagnoses (i.e., heritabilities of individual disorders are greater than co-heritabilities between disorders) (Figure S2 in Supplement 2).

Understanding the genetic contribution to common disease is a foundation for many other research directions. It is outside the scope of this review to focus on the utility of the estimates of heritability and genetic correlation in detail. Estimates of SNP-based heritability help to guide whether efforts to increase GWAS sample sizes should continue, as they provide an upper limit on the combined effects of individual associated loci. Estimates of heritability and SNP-based heritability provide guidelines of maximum future accuracy of risk prediction applied to people whose disease status is not yet known. Genetic correlations can be used to determine how much the accuracy of the risk prediction can be improved by drawing on information from correlated traits, which perhaps are available in much larger samples than for the primary disorder itself (68). Here, we have focused on genetic correlations between psychiatric disorders, an approach that is likely to reflect pleiotropy (same causal variants affecting more than one disorder). However, genetic correlations can also be estimated between psychiatric disorders and other common diseases, or between psychiatric disorders and traits measurable in the population (such as educational attainment or smoking status), and these estimates could reflect causal relationships, which have been long-discussed in the psychiatric epidemiology literature (69). In the past 5 years, results from GWASs have allowed causal relationships using putative exposure traits and psychiatric disorders to be explored, as well as those between psychiatric disorders and subsequent metabolic disease, using the Mendelian randomization approach. The application of Mendelian randomization to psychiatric disorders has been discussed elsewhere (70) and is an exciting tool in psychiatry (as long as studies are well powered) to investigate putative causal relationships that are impossible or unethical to address through clinical trials. As an example, we recently showed that although there is considerable pleiotropy between genetic variants for vitamin D and psychiatric disorders, there is no evidence of a causal relationship (71). Such analyses contribute hard data to a long discussion in psychiatric epidemiology (72,73). Finally, we hope that our Supplementary materials, including Rmarkdown script and CHARRGe Shiny application (https://shiny.cnsgenomics.com/CHARRGe/), are useful to others both in research and as teaching and learning aids.

Who Mismanages Student Loans and Why? Loan management is worse for men & minorities

Cornaggia, Kimberly Rodgers and Xia, Han, Who Mismanages Student Loans and Why? (August 21, 2020). SSRN: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3686937

Abstract: With a license to use individually identifiable information on student loan borrowers, we find that a majority of distressed student borrowers manage their debt sub-optimally and that suboptimal debt management is associated with higher loan delinquency. Cross-sectional analysis indicates that loan (mis)management varies significantly across student gender, ethnicity, and age. We test several potential selection-based explanations for such demographic variation in student loan management, including variation in students’ overconfidence, consumption preferences and discount rates, and aversion to administrative paperwork. Motivated by federal and state allegations against student loan servicers, we also test for the presence of treatment effects. Overall, the empirical evidence supports the conclusion that loan servicers’ differential treatment across borrowers play an important role in student loan outcomes.

Keywords: Student loans, Student demographics, Household finance, Loan servicers

JEL Classification: D14, H52, H81, I22, I28

An Investigation Across 105 Countries of Gender Differences in the Five Factor Model of Personality: Men score higher in Emotional Stability (the more individualist the country, the more stable) & lower in Agreeableness

International Comparison of Gender Differences in the Five Factor Model of Personality: An Investigation Across 105 Countries. Sara A. Murphy, Peter A. Fisher, Chet Robie. Journal of Research in Personality, 104047, Nov 29 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2020.104047

Abstract: Researchers have been interested in cross-cultural gender differences in personality for decades. Early research on the five factor (FFM) model of personality focused on estimating the difference between men and women on personality dimensions, however results have varied. Using a large cross-country sample of personality data and advanced analytic techniques, we uncover accurate estimates of cross-country gender differences in personality. Relatively small (δÌ¿^ < |.10|) cross-country gender differences emerged on most FFM dimensions, with the largest differences emerging for Emotional Stability (δÌ¿^ = .38) and Agreeableness (δÌ¿^ = -.17). After controlling for socioeconomic indicators, gender indicators, and Type I error, only country-level Individualism accounted for unique variance in effect size differences for Emotional Stability. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Keywords: Gender; Personality; Five-Factor Model; Cross-cultural; Cross-country

Suspecting infidelity: Greater reported suspicion-related distress, depression, physical health symptoms, & risky health behavior, particularly those with higher beliefs in the importance of fidelity, or a history of infidelity

Suspicious minds: The psychological, physical and behavioral consequences of suspecting a partner’s infidelity. Daniel J. Weigel, M. Rosie Shrout. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, November 28, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407520975851

Abstract: Guided by transactional stress theory, this study examined the psychological, physical, and behavioral consequences of the suspicion of a partner’s infidelity. Survey data collected from 246 individuals revealed that suspecting a partner’s infidelity was associated with greater reported suspicion-related distress, depression, physical health symptoms, and risky health behavior. Mediation and moderated mediation analyses revealed that the relationship between suspected infidelity and well-being was indirectly affected by suspicion-related distress. The effects of suspected infidelity were particularly hard on those with higher beliefs in the importance of fidelity, a history of infidelity in the relationship, and higher relationship satisfaction. The findings show that the mere suspicion of a partner’s infidelity can have powerful psychological, physical, and behavioral consequences in romantic relationships.

Keywords: Health, infidelity, stress, suspicion, well-being

More attractive individuals are more likely to be invited to join, and join, both organizations and informal gatherings, particularly early in adult life

Physical Attractiveness, Halo Effects, and Social Joining. Carl L. Palmer  Rolfe Daus Peterson. Social Science Quarterly, November 27 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12892

Abstract

Objective: Scholarship in psychology on halo effects demonstrates the powerful effects attractiveness has on social interactions. Here, we consider the influence of physical attractiveness on the development of social capital through social joining. With the unavoidable nature of attractiveness biases, we argue that more physically attractive individuals should be increasingly likely to join social organizations, which have been shown to be important parts of broader social engagement and the growth of social capital.

Methods: Utilizing the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study and an original survey experiment, we find that individuals who are rated as more attractive are consistently more likely to participate in organizations, particularly early in adult life. These effects persist when controlling for socioeconomic variables like income and education.

Results: Our experimental results bolster these findings, showing that more attractive individuals are more likely to be invited to join both organizations and informal gatherings.

Conclusions: These findings suggest a further mechanism through which the development of social capital differs between individuals in society.

Despite negative vision on atheists, there is a positive view too—preferring atheist partners as party hosts, open-minded conversation partners, and science tutor

Moon, Jordan W., Jaimie Krems, and Adam B. Cohen. 2020. “Is There Anything Good About Atheists? Exploring Positive and Negative Stereotypes of the Religious and Nonreligious.” PsyArXiv. November 29. doi:10.31234/osf.io/8ksnd. Accepted at Social Psychological and Personality Science

Rolf Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1332925681114738691

Abstract: Negative stereotypes about atheists are widespread, robust, rooted in distrust, and linked to discrimination. Here, we examine whether social perceivers in the US might additionally hold any positive stereotypes about atheists (and corresponding negative stereotypes of the religious). Experiments 1 (N = 401) and 2 (N = 398, preregistered) used methods of intuitive stereotypes (the conjunction fallacy). People tended to stereotype atheists as fun, open-minded, and scientific—even as they harbor extreme intuitive anti-atheist prejudice in Experiment 2. Experiment 3 (N = 382) used a quasi-behavioral partner-choice paradigm, finding that most people choose atheist (versus religious) partners in stereotype-relevant domains. Overall, results suggest that people simultaneously possess negative and also positive stereotypes about atheists, but that corresponding negative stereotypes of the religious may be even stronger. These effects are robust among the nonreligious and somewhat religious, but evidence is mixed about whether the highly religious harbor these positive stereotypes.

From 2019... A meta-analytical and experimental examination of blood glucose effects on decision making under risk

A meta-analytical and experimental examination of blood glucose effects on decision making under risk. Jacob Lund Orquin, Jacob Dalgaard Christensen, Carl-Johan Lagerkvist. Judgment and Decision Making, Vol. xx, No. x, Month 20xx, pp. 1024–1036. http://journal.sjdm.org/19/191213/jdm191213.pdf

Abstract: Previous research has shown that short-term changes in blood glucose influence our preferences and may affect decisions about risk as well. However, consensus is lacking about whether and how blood glucose influences decision making under risk, and we conduct two experiments and a meta-analysis to examine this question in detail. In Study 1, using a pecuniary valuation method, we find no effect of blood glucose on willingness to pay for risky products that may act as allergens. In Study 2, using risky gambles, we find that low levels of blood glucose increase risk taking for food and to a lesser degree for non-food rewards. Combining our own and previous findings in a meta-analysis, we show that low levels of blood glucose on average increase risk taking about food. Low blood glucose does not increase risk taking about non-food rewards although this is subject to heterogeneity. Overall, our studies suggest that low blood glucose increases our willingness to gamble on how much food we can get, but not our willingness to eat food that can harm us. Our findings are best explained by the energy budget rule.

Keywords: risk; blood glucose; decision making; meta-analysis; energy budget rule

The Who and Why of Consensual Nonmonogamy Among African Americans

The Who and Why of Consensual Nonmonogamy Among African Americans. Noelle M. St. Vil, Natalie M. Leblanc & Kelly N. Giles. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Nov 25 2020. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10508-020-01835-3

Abstract: Prevalence rates of consensual nonmonogamy (CNM) demonstrate little difference across race. Yet, not much is known about CNM among African Americans. Through an online survey study, we examined the correlates of CNM among African Americans as well as the reasons why they engage. A total of 1050 African Americans between the ages of 18–40 years participated in this study. Binomial logistic regression was utilized to determine the correlates of CNM. Sexual orientation was the only significant predictor of CNM. The following variables were nonsignificant predictors of CNM: age, gender, household income, religiosity, and education. Qualitative analysis revealed several reasons for CNM engagement: (1) belief that it is natural; (2) excitement; (3) not meant for each other; (4) scared of losing partner; (5) bisexuality; (6) does not want commitment; and (7) maintain honesty, trust, and integrity. This study adds to the sparse knowledge base of CNM among African Americans.

People making flattering descriptions of their relatives and loved ones were seen as biased but likeable, whereas people who did not enhance (nor denigrate) their loves ones were seen as realistic but not likeable

The Effects of Bias Perception on Trait Impressions of People Describing Themselves vs. Others. Joao Amaral. Universidade de Lisboa, PhD Thesis, 2020. https://repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/44955/1/ulfpie055745_tm.pdf

Rolf Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1332583413526761473

Abstract: Past research has showed that people expect others to be biased, and these perceptions of bias, in some contexts, can be associated with negative impressions. A widely studied example of a biased claim is self-enhancement, where people blatantly describe themselves as better than others. The Hubris Hypothesis predicts that these people are evaluated negatively. The present research replicates this finding, but it shows the opposite pattern when these comparative appraisals are directed towards others. People making flattering descriptions of their relatives and loved ones were seen as biased but likeable, whereas people who did not enhance (nor denigrate) their loves ones were seen as realistic but not likeable. This research suggests a more nuanced version of the role of bias perception in impression formation, whereby biased appraisals are expected in certain domains, and they can inspire favorable impressions when directed towards others.

Keywords: enhancement; hubris hypothesis; bias perception; social desirability; better-thanaverage effect

People perceive more severe environmental problems in the country at large than in their own neck of the world

A Within-Country Study of Biased Comparative Judgements About the Severity of Environmental Problems.  Taciano L. Milfont, Robert Thomson. Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol 15 No 3, Oct 30 2020. https://doi.org/10.32872/spb.3019

Rolf Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1332601143898333184

Abstract: The spatial and temporal reach of contemporary environmental problems are unparalleled. Collective efforts to address global environmental problems are required but actions to tackle these problems demand initial recognition of their seriousness. Cross-cultural research has shown a reliable bias in comparative judgements about the severity of environmental problems for geographically distant places, with environmental issues perceived to be more severe “there” than “here.” The robustness of this effect may have unwarranted consequences since perceiving environmental problems as being worse elsewhere might lead individuals to not take actions in their locality. We conducted a within-country study to test whether this spatial bias would emerge for samples from all Brazilian states (k = 27, N = 4,265; 85% female; Age M = 24; Age SD = 9.67). Providing further support for a biased comparative judgement, we observed that the severity of environmental problems was judged as worse at the country level than at the state level (mean spatial bias score among Brazilian states = 0.54). Only 2% of the variation in spatial bias was attributable to across-state differences. By replicating cross-cultural findings within a single nation, our findings provide further support for the prevalence and generalizability of biased comparative judgements about the severity of environmental problems. We discuss critical future directions for spatial bias research.

Women were less prone than men to accept a moral violation, such as killing someone to save their own lives and the lives of others; & were more emotionally involved and experienced dysphoric emotions more often than men

Gender Differences in Solving Moral Dilemmas: Emotional Engagement, Care and Utilitarian Orientation. P. Cordellieri, M. Boccia, L. Piccardi, D. Kormakova, L. V. Stoica, F. Ferlazzo, C. Guariglia & A. M. Giannini. Psychological Studies, November 25 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12646-020-00573-9

Abstract: Moral sense is important for determining human behaviour. Moral sense becomes crucial in operational environments in which choices must be made that have complex moral implications in highly stressful situations. Behavioural and neuroimaging findings have shown the existence of gender-related differences in moral reasoning. The present study aimed to investigate whether gender affects moral reasoning and emotional state. We also investigated whether empathy, decision-making and emotional regulation strategies had a role in determining gender differences in solving moral dilemmas. We found that moral judgements and emotional engagement were significantly different. Women were less prone than men to accept a moral violation, such as killing someone to save their own lives and the lives of others. Furthermore, women were more emotionally involved and experienced dysphoric emotions more often than men. Our results shed light upon the mechanisms that affect moral reasoning and determine gender differences in solving moral dilemmas.

Strong partisanship relates to exposure to both left- and right-leaning hyperpartisan news; & exposure to left- (right-)leaning hyperpartisan content relates to negative (positive) affective involvement

Hyperpartisan News Use: Relationships with Partisanship and Cognitive and Affective Involvement. Cynthia Peacock et al. Mass Communication and Society, Nov 24 2020. Download citation https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1844902

Rolf Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1332553895982272512

Abstract: This paper revisits the issue of partisan selectivity in the era of prevalent false, misleading, and biased information. We surveyed a representative sample of adults living in the United States to investigate the relationships among hyperpartisan news use, partisanship, and cognitive and affective involvement. First, we find that strong partisanship—from both Democrats and Republicans—relates to exposure to both left- and right-leaning hyperpartisan news. Second, exposure to left-leaning hyperpartisan content relates to negative affective involvement, while exposure to right-leaning hyperpartisan news relates to positive affective involvement. Neither left- nor right-leaning hyperpartisan news use relates to cognitive involvement, though traditional news use does. These findings add to the literature on partisan selective exposure and provide new details about the makeup of news audiences and their cognitive and affective involvement with hyperpartisan news.

Check also The Gender Gap in Online News Comment Sections. Emily Van Duyn, Cynthia Peacock, Natalie Jomini Stroud. Social Science Computer Review, July 26, 2019. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2019/07/women-are-less-likely-than-men-to.html

Not in need of reputation: Capuchin monkeys did not share more food when in the presence of an observer

Testing the two sides of indirect reciprocity in tufted capuchin monkeys. Gabriele Schino et al. Behavioural Processes, November 28 2020, 104290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104290

Highlights

• We studied two aspects of indirect reciprocity in tufted capuchin monkeys.

• Recent groomers did not receive increased grooming, compared to recent groomees.

• Capuchin monkeys did not share more food when in the presence of an observer.

• We conclude that capuchin monkeys do not engage in indirect reciprocity.

Abstract: We addressed two different aspects of indirect reciprocity in tufted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) studying two common cooperative behaviours, grooming and food sharing. In an observational study, we tested whether capuchin monkeys were more likely to groom an individual that had just groomed a group mate than an individual that had not groomed anybody. In an experimental study, we tested whether capuchin monkeys were more likely to share their food with a partner when in the presence of a bystander (or of an image of the eyes of a conspecific) than when alone with their partner. In the observational study, we found an increase in the likelihood of receiving grooming after giving grooming, but this effect seemed to depend on social facilitation rather than on indirect reciprocity, as we found a similar effect after receiving (rather than giving) grooming. In the experimental study, the presence of a bystander or of an image of eyes did not affect the amount of food transferred to a group mate. Overall, these results suggest capuchin monkeys do not engage in indirect reciprocity.

Keywords: Indirect reciprocitysocial facilitationgroomingfood sharingSapajus spp.

In previous research, sighing in daily life was related to subclinical depression; lay people believe sighing is related to trait negative emotionality; contradicting assumptions, sighing was unrelated to negative emotionality

Is Frequent Sighing an Indicator of Dispositional Negative Emotionality? A Multi-Sample, Multi-Measure Naturalistic-Observation Study. Alexander F. Danvers et al. Journal of Research in Personality, November 28 2020, 104046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2020.104046

Highlights

• In previous research, sighing in daily life was related to subclinical depression.

• Lay people believe sighing is related to trait negative emotionality.

• We used recordings made throughout the daily lives of many people to code frequency of sighing.

• Contradicting assumptions, sighing was unrelated to negative emotionality.

• Sighing may have a more complex relationship to emotional experience.

Abstract: Sighing is a common nonverbal everyday behavior thought to signal the experiencing of negative emotions. Prior research from a small-scale study suggests that observed daily expressions of sighing is associated with subclinical depression (Robbins, Mehl, Holleran, & Kasle, 2011). This paper replicates and extends these findings, hypothesizing that individual differences in negative emotionality are associated with frequency of spontaneous sighing. Study 1 (N = 320) documents a strong lay assumption that frequent sighing signals dispositional negative emotionality. Study 2 estimates the actual association between daily sighing, assessed naturalistically using the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR), and negative emotionality in a large, diverse, pooled sample (N = 469). Bayesian tests across six measures (neuroticism, depression, anxiety, stress, fatigue, loneliness) strongly support the null model. Together, results suggest the common intuition that people who sigh frequently experience more negative emotionality is inaccurate. Assessing whether an individual sighs more (or less) than others cannot be used to infer that they experience more negative emotions.

Keywords: SighingDepressionElectronically Activated RecorderEmotionMobile Sensing

Do we choose the high-accuracy adviser (`the Expert'), or the low-accuracy one (`the Charlatan'), whose answers are designed to be similar to the modal participant's priors? We overwhelmingly choose the Charlatan

Alysandratos, Theodore and Boukouras, Aristotelis and Georganas, Sotiris and Maniadis, Zacharias, The Expert and The Charlatan: an Experimental Study in Economic Advice (June 22, 2020). SSRN: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3644653

Rolf Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1332356638385311744

Abstract: How do people choose what economic advice to heed? We develop a set of validated multiple-choice questions on economic policy problems, to examine empirically the persuasiveness of expert versus populist advice. We define populism as advice that conforms to commonly held beliefs, even when wrong. Two (computerized) advisers suggest answers to each question, and experimental participants are incentivised to choose the most accurate adviser. Do participants choose the high-accuracy adviser (`the Expert'), or the low-accuracy one (`the Charlatan'), whose answers are designed to be similar to the modal participant's priors? Our participants overwhelmingly choose the Charlatan, and this is only slowly and partially reversed with sequential feedback on the correct answer. We develop Bayesian models to determine optimal choice benchmarks, but find that behavior is best explained by a naive choice model akin to reinforcement learning with high inertia.

Keywords: Democracy, Economic Literacy, Expert Advice, Populism

JEL Classification: C91, A11

Although people tend to take the path of least resistance, there are situations where investing money & effort makes the associated activities more worthwhile

Englert, Chris, Benjamin Pageaux, and Wanja Wolff. 2020. “Self-control in Sports.” PsyArXiv. November 27. doi:10.31234/osf.io/695c2

Rof Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1332271387965321216

Abstract

Imagine yourself walking to the gym in the rain after a long hard day at work. Picture yourself lifting heavy weights, even though you would prefer sitting on the sofa watching your favorite baseball team win a playoff match. Envision a marathon runner who keeps pushing herself during the final miles of a run, trying to override her thoughts of quitting the straining competition. These are just some sports-related examples of situations during which self-control processes enable us to keep striving for a desirable goal and suppress po-tentially tempting action alternatives. In general, “self-control refers to the capacity for altering one’s own responses, especially to bring them into line with standards such as ideals, values, morals, and social expectations, and to support the pursuit of long-term goals” (Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007, p. 351) . However, self-control is not always applied effectively as, for instance, evidenced by the large number of gym dropouts every year (e.g., Englert & Rummel, 2016).

In this chapter, we will discuss empirical findings that highlight the importance of self-control for sports-related performance and we will introduce the theoretical accounts that try to explain why self-control sometimes appears to fail. Finally, we will discuss open research questions in order to improve our understanding of how self-control operates and why it is not applied at all times.

In the Ivory Tower: Liberals focus on student emotional well-being and social justice with a concomitant de-emphasis on academic rigor and knowledge advancement

Geher, G., Jewell, O., Holler, R., Planke, J., Betancourt, K., Baroni, A., Di Santo, J., Gleason, M., & Eisenberg, J. (2020). Politics and Academic Values in Higher Education: Just How Much Does Political Orientation Drive the Values of the Ivory Tower? Unpublished Manuscript. Nov 2020. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1TU4nTnE2qvMFvJXsXaSzgCdU7ZWDv4ZU/view

Abstract: This research examined academic values among a broad sample of academics throughout the United States. The primary purpose of this research was to see if academic values are significantly related to field of expertise, political orientation, gender, and personality. Participants, who included 177 academics, were asked to indicate how much they prioritize five academic values, including academic rigor, academic freedom, student emotional well-being, social justice, and the advancement of knowledge. Political orientation was related to each of these values, except for academic freedom, with political liberalism corresponding to a focus on student emotional well-being and social justice with a concomitant de-emphasis on academic rigor and knowledge advancement. Area of expertise demonstrated a similar effect, with scholars from the field of education showing a pattern similar to those who have a strong liberal political orientation and scholars in the field of business showing the converse trend. Gender had independent effects, with females having stronger emphases on student emotional well-being and social justice compared with males. Finally, in terms of personality correlates, those who scored relatively high on a measure of agreeableness demonstrated more emphasis on student emotional well-being and social justice with a de-emphasis on academic rigor and knowledge advancement. Taken together, these findings indicate that academic values are strongly related to a variety of socially and psychologically relevant variables. Further, these data provide strong evidence that values among academics vary wildly as a function of such variables as political orientation, area of expertise, gender, and personality.

Keywords: Academic Values, Social Justice, Politics, Academic Freedom, Free Speech

Survey of more than 75k individuals, 138 countries with data on global epidemics since 1970: Exposure to epidemics has no impact on views of science as an endeavor but that it significantly reduces trust in scientists and their work

Revenge of the Experts: Will Covid-19 Renew or Diminish Public Trust in Science? Barry Eichengreen, Cevat Giray Aksoy & Orkun Saka. NBER Working Paper 28112, Nov 2020. DOI 10.3386/w28112

Abstract: It is sometimes said that an effect of the COVID-19 pandemic will be heightened appreciation of the importance of scientific research and expertise. We test this hypothesis by examining how exposure to previous epidemics affected trust in science and scientists. Building on the “impressionable years hypothesis” that attitudes are durably formed during the ages 18 to 25, we focus on individuals exposed to epidemics in their country of residence at this particular stage of the life course. Combining data from a 2018 Wellcome Trust survey of more than 75,000 individuals in 138 countries with data on global epidemics since 1970, we show that such exposure has no impact on views of science as an endeavor but that it significantly reduces trust in scientists and in the benefits of their work. We also illustrate that the decline in trust is driven by the individuals with little previous training in science subjects. Finally, our evidence suggests that epidemic-induced distrust translates into lower compliance with health-related policies in the form of negative views towards vaccines and lower rates of child vaccination.

On inflicting a painful electric shock on another subject to receive a monetary reward: Increasing self-awareness (e.g. seeing themselves in a mirror ) significantly reduces the fraction of subjects inflicting pain

Facing yourself – A note on self-image. Armin Falk. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, November 26 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.11.003

Rolf Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1332198568363315200

Abstract: The concern for a positive self-image is a central assumption in a large class of signaling models. In this paper, we exogenously vary the impact of self-image concerns by manipulating self-directed attention and study the impact on moral behavior. The choice context in the experiment is whether subjects inflict a painful electric shock on another subject to receive a monetary reward. In the main treatment, subjects see their own face on the decision screen in a real-time video feed. In three control conditions, subjects see either no video at all or a neutral video, or they see themselves in a mirror. We find that increasing self-awareness significantly reduces the fraction of subjects inflicting pain. The finding emphasizes the importance of self-image concerns for moral decision making with implications for theory as well as practical applications to promote socially desirable outcomes.

Keywords: Self-imageMoral behavior

JEL D64C91

We Are What We Watch: Movie Plots Predict the Personalities of Those Who “like” Them

Nave, Gideon, Jason Rentfrow, and Sudeep Bhatia. 2020. “We Are What We Watch: Movie Plots Predict the Personalities of Those Who “like” Them” PsyArXiv. November 26. doi:10.31234/osf.io/wsdu8

Abstract: The proliferation of media streaming services has increased the volume of personalized video consumption, allowing marketers to reach massive audiences and deliver a range of customized content at scale. However, relatively little is known about how consumers’ psychological makeup is manifested in their media preferences. The present paper addresses this gap in a preregistered study of the relationship between movie plots, quantified via user-generated keywords, and the aggregate personality profiles of those who “like” them on social media. We find that movie plots can be used to accurately predict aggregate fans’ personalities, above and beyond the demographic characteristics of fans, and general film characteristics such as quality, popularity, and genre. Further analysis reveals various associations between the movies’ psychological themes and their fans’ personalities, indicating congruence between the two. For example, films with keywords related to anxiety are liked more among people who are high in Neuroticism and low in Extraversion. In contrast, angry and violent movies are liked more by people who are low in Agreeableness. Our findings provide a fine-grained mapping between personality dimensions and preferences for media content, and demonstrate how these links can be leveraged for assessing audience psychographics at scale.

Significant gender differences in mental-rotation tests appeared only when male-stereotyped objects (cube figures) were used as rotational material, but not for female-stereotyped material

Influence of the stimulus material on gender differences in a mental-rotation test. Martina Rahe, Vera Ruthsatz & Claudia Quaiser-Pohl. Psychological Research, November 25 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00426-020-01450-w

Rolf Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1331903770003968000

Abstract: Gender differences in mental-rotation tests with cube figures as rotational material are well examined and robust. Besides biological or socialization factors, task characteristics could partly be responsible for men’s advantage in mental rotation. Therefore, we investigated in two studies the influence of different rotational materials on the gender differences in mental-rotation performance. In the first study, 134 undergraduate students (89 women, 45 men) participated using a mental-rotation test with either cube or pellet figures. Significant gender differences in favour of men but no interaction of gender and material were found. In the second study, 189 undergraduate students (110 women, 79 men) solved a mental-rotation test with either male or female-stereotyped objects. Significant gender differences appeared only when male-stereotyped objects were used as rotational material, but not for female-stereotyped material. A significant interaction of gender and material appeared. Hence, some rotational objects seem to have an influence on participants’ mental-rotation performance and the gender differences in this task while others do not affect performances of women and men.

The Heritability of Insomnia Is Approx 40pct: A Meta‐Analysis of Twin Studies

The Heritability of Insomnia: A Meta‐Analysis of Twin Studies. Nicola L. Barclay  Desi Kocevska  Wichor M. Bramer  Eus J. W. Van Someren  Philip Gehrman. Genes, Brain and Behavior, November 21 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12717

Rolf Degen's take: https://twitter.com/DegenRolf/status/1331675780955463680

Abstract: Twin studies of insomnia exhibit heterogeneity in estimates of heritability. This heterogeneity is likely due to sex differences, age of the sample, the reporter, and the definition of insomnia. The aim of the present study was to systematically search the literature for twin studies investigating insomnia disorder and insomnia symptoms and to meta‐analyse the estimates of heritability derived from these studies to generate an overall estimate of heritability. We further examined whether heritability was moderated by sex, age, reporter and insomnia symptom. A systematic literature search of 5 online databases was completed on January 24th 2020. Two authors independently screened 5,644 abstracts, and 160 complete papers for the inclusion criteria of twin studies from the general population reporting heritability statistics on insomnia or insomnia symptoms, written in English, reporting data from independent studies. We ultimately included 12 papers in the meta‐analysis. The meta‐analysis focussed on twin intra‐class correlations for monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Based on these intra‐class correlations, the meta‐analytic estimate of heritability was estimated at 40%. Moderator analyses demonstrated stronger heritability in females than males; and for parent‐reported insomnia symptoms compared to self‐reported insomnia symptoms. There were no other significant moderator effects, though this is likely due to the small number of studies that were comparable across levels of the moderators. Our meta‐analysis provides a robust estimate of the heritability of insomnia which can inform future research aiming to uncover molecular genetic factors involved in insomnia vulnerability.

Why do so few people share fake news? It hurts their reputation

Why do so few people share fake news? It hurts their reputation. Sacha Altay, Anne-Sophie Hacquin, Hugo Mercier. New Media & Society, November 24, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820969893

Abstract: In spite of the attractiveness of fake news stories, most people are reluctant to share them. Why? Four pre-registered experiments (N = 3,656) suggest that sharing fake news hurt one’s reputation in a way that is difficult to fix, even for politically congruent fake news. The decrease in trust a source (media outlet or individual) suffers when sharing one fake news story against a background of real news is larger than the increase in trust a source enjoys when sharing one real news story against a background of fake news. A comparison with real-world media outlets showed that only sources sharing no fake news at all had similar trust ratings to mainstream media. Finally, we found that the majority of people declare they would have to be paid to share fake news, even when the news is politically congruent, and more so when their reputation is at stake.

Keywords: Communication, fake news, misinformation, political bias, reputation, social media, source, trust

Check also It happened to a friend of a friend: inaccurate source reporting in rumour diffusion. Sacha Altay, Nicolas Claidière and Hugo Mercier. Evolutionary Human Sciences, 22020, e49, November 2020. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2020/11/plausible-deniability-people-often.html

Questions are raised regarding the plausibility of certain reports with effect sizes comparable to, or in excess of, the effect sizes found in maximal positive controls

Maximal positive controls: A method for estimating the largest plausible effect size. Joseph Hilgard. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 93, March 2021, 104082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104082

Highlights

• Some reported effect sizes are too big for the hypothesized process.

• Simple, obvious manipulations can reveal which effects are too big.

• A demonstration is provided examining an implausibly large effect.

Abstract: Effect sizes in social psychology are generally not large and are limited by error variance in manipulation and measurement. Effect sizes exceeding these limits are implausible and should be viewed with skepticism. Maximal positive controls, experimental conditions that should show an obvious and predictable effect, can provide estimates of the upper limits of plausible effect sizes on a measure. In this work, maximal positive controls are conducted for three measures of aggressive cognition, and the effect sizes obtained are compared to studies found through systematic review. Questions are raised regarding the plausibility of certain reports with effect sizes comparable to, or in excess of, the effect sizes found in maximal positive controls. Maximal positive controls may provide a means to identify implausible study results at lower cost than direct replication.

Keywords: Violent video gamesAggressionAggressive thoughtPositive controlsScientific self-correction

5. General discussion

Maximal positive controls can provide a cost-effective way to establish the upper bound of plausible effect sizes in a measure. These upper bounds can be useful in detecting errors in previously published literature. Although implausibly large effect sizes may indicate errors in data collection, errors in analysis, or even possible misconduct, it has been my experience that journals are reluctant to issue expressions of concern for implausibly large results. This reluctance may be caused by the difficulty in determining which results are “too big”—a subjective decision that depends on the judgments and expectations of individual researchers and editors. These individual judgments may be better aligned through the empirical support provided by the collection of maximal positive controls. In this way, maximal positive controls might help identify erroneous reports by providing an empirical estimate of how big is too big.

The three examples provided here revealed some possibly erroneous reports. Study 1 suggests that even the largest effect sizes observed on the story completion task should nevertheless be smaller than those repeatedly reported by Hasan et al., 2012, Hasan et al., 2013, Hasan et al., 2015. This indicates some manner of confound or error in the study. Because of this likely error, it is not clear that the inferences from Hasan et al. (2013) are correct: Violent video games might not increase hostile-world beliefs and aggressive behavior, hostile-world beliefs might not mediate effects of violent games on aggressive behavior, and effects of violent video games (if any) might not accumulate from day to day. To my knowledge, the only other such long-term experiment was that of Kühn et al. (2019), who observed that two months of Grand Theft Auto V caused an increase in word completion task scores, but no significant increase on a measure of aggressive world view, an aggressive-cognition lexical decision task, or the Buss-Perry aggression questionnaire. New research will be necessary to test these claims.

Study 3 similarly suggests that even the strongest aggressive-emotion Stroop effect should not exceed about 400 ms. A review of the literature finds a few aggression-emotion Stroop differences of comparable or greater magnitude (Smeijers et al., 2018; Sun et al., 2019). There may be value in double-checking the accuracy of these reports.

In Study 2, by contrast, no studies using the word completion task approached the large effects found using maximal positive controls. Although individual differences in verbal skill may still represent a source of nuisance variance in this task, such differences do not seem to substantially limit the effect sizes one could obtain on this measure.

Researchers using these tasks may benefit from considering the effect size estimates in this study as benchmarks. For example, in the story completion task, if the difference between a peaceful architect and a mass murderer is d = 2.5, and the difference between that architect and an extreme sports enthusiast is d = 1.3, researchers should expect to find smaller effect sizes when using subtler manipulations and asking about the task's usual generic characters like “Todd” and “Jane.” Similarly, in the aggressive emotion Stroop, researchers should expect to find emotion Stroop effects of no more than 400 ms. When researchers estimate how many trials per participant or participants per study they should collect, reference to these estimates may help to inform power analyses by suggesting firm upper limits on even the most optimistic of effect size estimates. In the future, researchers may be able to develop heuristics about the typical ratio between an effect size observed in maximal positive control and in primary research.

One last practical suggestion can be made regarding the administration of the story completion task. Researchers can benefit from considering the influence of the different story stems, which elicited different mean scores. Although it is desirable to use multiple task stimuli to improve the task's generalizability, failing to model the effects of stimulus will leave those effects as error variance, reducing the effect size and degrading study power. The Condition × Scenario interaction suggests that the car accident scenario may be more sensitive than the other scenarios, perhaps by avoiding a floor effect.

Researchers are encouraged to use maximal positive controls to inspect the plausibility of effect sizes reported in their literatures. Maximal positive controls may be collected at lower cost than direct replications. Because maximal positive controls are deliberately dissimilar from original studies, they may also avoid some concerns common to direct replications such as omitted moderators (Stroebe & Strack, 2014), contextual sensitivity of effects (Van Bavel, Mende-Siedlecki, Brady, & Reinero, 2016), or the presence or absence of researcher “flair” (Baumeister, 2016). These concerns may avoided when there is a strong logical case that the maximal positive control should yield an effect strictly larger than the original work. Through the use of this method, researchers may learn more about the properties of their measurements, the range of plausible effect sizes, and the quality of research data, thereby facilitating faster scientific self-correction and improving the quality of data used in theory development.