Backfire effect (when a correction leads to an individual increasing their belief in the very misconception the correction is aiming to rectify): Paper suggests the effects are not a robust empirical phenomenon

Searching for the Backfire Effect: Measurement and Design Considerations. BrionySwire-Thompson, Joseph DeGutis, David Lazer. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, September 2 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.06.006

Abstract: One of the most concerning notions for science communicators, fact-checkers, and advocates of truth, is the backfire effect; this is when a correction leads to an individual increasing their belief in the very misconception the correction is aiming to rectify. There is currently a debate in the literature as to whether backfire effects exist at all, as recent studies have failed to find the phenomenon, even under theoretically favorable conditions. In this review, we summarize the current state of the worldview and familiarity backfire effect literatures. We subsequently examine barriers to measuring the backfire phenomenon, discuss approaches to improving measurement and design, and conclude with recommendations for fact-checkers. We suggest that backfire effects are not a robust empirical phenomenon, and more reliable measures, powerful designs, and stronger links between experimental design and theory could greatly help move the field ahead.

Keywords: Backfire effectsBelief updatingMisinformationContinued influence effectReliability

General Audience Summary: A backfire effect is when people report believing even more in misinformation after they have seen an evidence-based correction aiming to rectify it. This review discusses the current state of the backfire literature, examines barriers to measuring this phenomenon, and concludes with recommendations for fact-checkers. Two backfire effects have gained popularity in the literature: the worldview backfire effect and the familiarity backfire effect. While these both result in increased belief after a correction, they occur due to different psychological mechanisms. The worldview backfire effect is said to occur when a person is motivated to defend their worldview because a correction challenges a person's belief system. In contrast, the familiarity backfire effect is presumed to occur when misinformation is repeated within the retraction. Failures to find or replicate both backfire effects have been widespread. Much of the literature has interpreted these failures to replicate to indicate that either (a) the backfire effect is difficult to elicit on the larger group level, (b) it is extremely item-, situation-, or individual-specific, or (c) the phenomenon does not exist at all. We suggest that backfire effects are not a robust empirical phenomenon, and that improved measures, more powerful designs, and stronger links between experimental design and theory, could greatly help move the field ahead. Fact-checkers can rest assured that it is extremely unlikely that their fact-checks will lead to increased belief at the group level. Furthermore, research has failed to show backfire effects systematically in the same subgroup, so practitioners should not avoid giving corrections to any specific subgroup of people. Finally, avoiding the repetition of the original misconception within the correction appears to be unnecessary and could even hinder corrective efforts. However, misinformation should always be clearly and saliently paired with the corrective element, and needless repetitions of the misconceptions should still be avoided.

Practical Recommendations

Regarding the worldview backfire effect, fact-checkers can rest assured that it is extremely unlikely that, at the broader group level, their fact-checks will lead to increased belief in the misinformation. Meta-analyses have clearly shown that corrections are generally effective and backfire effects are not the norm (e.g., Chan, Jones, Hall Jamieson, & Albarracín, 2017; Walter & Murphy, 2018). Furthermore, given that research has yet to systematically show backfire effects in the same subgroups, practitioners should not avoid giving corrections to any specific subgroups of people. Fact-checkers can therefore focus on other known issues such as getting the fact-checks to the individuals who are most likely to be misinformed.

Regarding the familiarity backfire effect, avoiding the repetition of the original misconception within the correction appears to be unnecessary and could even hinder corrective efforts (Ecker et al., 2017, Kendeou and O’Brien, 2014). We therefore instead suggest designing the correction first and foremost with clarity and ease of interpretation in mind. Although the familiarity backfire effect lacks evidence, we must be aware that the illusory truth effect in the absence of corrections or veracity judgments is extremely robust. Therefore, when designing a correction, the misinformation should always be clearly and saliently paired with the corrective element, and needless repetitions of the misconception should still be avoided. For instance, given that many individuals do not read further than headlines (Gabielkov, Ramachandran, Chaintreau, & Legout, 2016), the misconception should not be described in the headline alone with the correction in smaller print in the text below (Ecker, Lewandowsky, Chang, & Pillai, 2014; Ecker, Lewandowsky, Fenton, & Martin, 2014). Adding the corrective element within the headline itself, even if it is simply a salient “myth” tag associated with the misconception, can be considered good practice.

Future Research

Although improvements in both experimental measures and designs are important, Oberauer and Lewandowsky (2019) highlight that another cause of poor replicability is weak logical links between theories and empirical tests. Future research could more explicitly manipulate key factors presumed to influence belief updating, whether it be fluency, perceived item importance, strength of belief, complexity of the item wording, order of corrective elements, internal counter-arguing, source of the message, or participants’ communicating disagreement with the correction. Focusing on theoretically meaningful factors could help to better isolate the potential mechanisms behind backfire effects or the continued influence effect in general. Furthermore, it would be beneficial to be aware of other competing factors to avoid confounds. For example, when investigating the effects of familiarity, one could avoid exclusively using issues presumed to elicit worldview backfire effects (e.g., vaccines, Skurnik et al., 2007). Additionally, given that responses to corrections are likely heterogeneous, it would be beneficial to use a wide variety of issues in experiments that vary on theoretically meaningful criteria to dissociate when backfire effects occur and when they do not.

Future research should also empirically investigate common recommendations that stem from the familiarity backfire effect notion which have yet to be thoroughly examined. For example, it is unclear whether belief updating is fostered by presenting a “truth sandwich” to participants, stating the truth twice with the falsehood between (Sullivan, 2018). Preliminary findings suggest that a “bottom-loaded” correction, which first states the misconception followed by two factual statements, could be more effective than the truth sandwich (Anderson, Horton, & Rapp, 2019), although further research is required prior to firm recommendations being made.

Finally, there are additional occasions where corrections could be counter-productive that require empirical investigation. For instance, correcting facts in public political debate might not always be advisable, because it involves the acceptance of someone else's framing, allowing the person who promulgated the original falsehood to set the agenda (Lakoff, 2010; Lewandowsky, Ecker, & Cook, 2017). Furthermore, broadcasting a correction where few people believe in the misconception could be a legitimate concern, since the correction may spread the misinformation to new audiences (Kwan, 2019, Schwarz et al., 2016). For example, if the BBC widely publicized a correction to a misconception that its readership never believed to begin with, it will not reap the benefits of belief reduction, and those who do not trust this source may question its conclusion. The next crucial step is to examine such instances with real-world scenarios on social media or fact-checking websites.

The impacts of COVID-19 lockdown on sexuality: Decrease in libido, partnered activity

The impacts of COVID-19 lockdown on sexuality. Sébastien Landry, Martin Chartogne, Alexandra Landry. Sexologies, September 2 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sexol.2020.08.002

Abstract: During the coronavirus crisis, French people daily life was upset by eight weeks of lockdown. This upheaval required adaptation to both the professional and personal standards of the whole population. What about the level of sexual life during this period of lockdown? Was sexuality at his peak for people confined in couple? Have auto-erotic practices been accentuated for individuals confined without sexual partner? To investigate these issues, we conducted a prospective survey using two online anonymous self-administered questionnaires - one for people living in couples and one for people living alone, without sexual partner. 844 questionnaires were analyzed - 437 for individuals confined in couple and 407 for individuals confined alone - carried out in 554 women and 291 men. Results of this study highlight changes in sexual habits in both couples and those without partners during this period. We also note an impact of the psychological experience link to the situation on sexuality. Whether the confinement is experienced positively or negatively by the subjects, repercussions on sexuality are different. We could have believed, at the beginning of the lockdown, that couples’ sexuality would increase tenfold, and that people confined alone would increase their masturbatory practices but this particular health context has unexpected repercussions on sexuality.

Keywords: lockdownsexualityinformationquality of sexual life

The intergenerational transmission of parent’s overweight differs by children’s sex and is statistically different for fathers & mothers; the effect is stronger among white children and children of older parents

Is the intergenerational transmission of overweight ‘gender assortative’? JoanCosta-Font, Mireia Jofre-Bonet. Economics & Human Biology, Volume 39, December 2020, 100907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2020.100907

Highlights
• We study whether parents and children’s overweight (including obesity) is ‘gender assortative’.
• Gender assortative overweight is stronger among pre-school age and school-aged children.
• The parent-child associations are large and precisely estimated, and are heterogeneous by children’s age and sex.
• The parent-child associations are stronger among white children and children of older parents.

Abstract: Using almost two decades worth of data from the Health Survey for England, that contain representative records of clinically measured weight and height, this paper studies whether parents and children’s overweight (including obesity) is ‘gender assortative’. Our findings suggest that the intergenerational transmission of parent’s overweight differs by children’s sex and is statistically different for fathers and mothers. Gender assortative overweight is stronger among pre-school age and school-aged children. The parent-child associations are large and precisely estimated, heterogeneous by children’s age and sex and stronger among white children and children of older parents. These results suggest there is a gender assortative intergenerational association of overweight.

Keywords: Gender-assortative transmissionGender assortativeChild obesityChild overweightRole modelsInter-generational transmission

U.S.: With marijuana legalization, monthly sales of high calorie food increased by 3.2 percent when measured by sales and 4.5 percent when measured by volume

Recreational Marijuana Laws and Junk Food Consumption. Michele Baggio, Alberto Chong. Economics & Human Biology, September 1 2020, 100922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2020.100922

Highlights
• Our research is the first that causally links cannabis consumption to junk food consumption.
• We apply a difference-in-difference approach by exploiting differences in the timing of the legalization of recreational marijuana (RML) across the United States and compare junk food retail sales at the county level.
• In counties located in RML states monthly sales of high calorie food increased by 3.2 percent when measured by sales and 4.5 percent when measured by volume when using our preferred identification strategy.
• Results are robust to including placebo effective dates for RMLs in treated states as well as when using Synthetic Control Methods as an alternative methodology.

Abstract: We use retail scanner data on purchases of high calorie food to study the causal relationship between recreational marijuana laws (RMLs) and consumption of high calorie food. To do this we exploit differences in the timing of introduction of recreational marijuana laws among states and find that they are complements. Specifically, in counties located in RML states monthly sales of high calorie food increased by 3.2 percent when measured by sales and 4.5 percent when measured by volume when using our preferred identification strategy. Results are robust to including placebo effective dates for RMLs in treated states and products as well as when using Synthetic Control Methods as an alternative methodology.

Keywords: Junk FoodDiff-in-DiffRecreational Marijuana LawsSynthetic Controls

We hypothesize that the effectivity of sirens as warning signals has been enhanced by natural sensory predisposition of humans to get alerted by howling of wolves; wolves reply to technical sirens with howling too

Wolf Howling and Emergency Sirens: A Hypothesis of Natural and Technical Convergence of Aposematic Signals. Diana Kořanová, Lucie Němcová, Richard Policht, Vlastimil Hart, Sabine Begall & Hynek Burda. Acta Biotheoretica (2020). Sep 2 2020. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10441-020-09389-6

Abstract: Acoustic signals serving intraspecific communication by predators are perceived by potential prey as warning signals. We analysed the acoustic characteristics of howling of wolves and found a striking similarity to the warning sounds of technical sirens. We hypothesize that the effectivity of sirens as warning signals has been enhanced by natural sensory predisposition of humans to get alerted by howling of wolves, with which they have a long history of coexistence. Psychoacoustic similarity of both stimuli seems to be supported by the fact that wolves and dogs perceive the sound of technical sirens as a relevant releasing supernormal stimulus and reply to it with howling. Inspiration by naturally occurring acoustic aposematic signals might become an interesting example of biomimetics in designing new warning sound systems.

Intelligence has been declared as a necessary, but not sufficient condition for creativity, which was subsequently translated into the so-called threshold hypothesis (after some point, intelligence is not related to creativity)

Weiss, Selina, Diana Steger, Ulrich Schroeders, and Oliver Wilhelm. 2020. “Creativity and Intelligence: An Investigation of the Threshold Hypothesis.” PsyArXiv. September 2. doi:10.31234/osf.io/89bv5

Abstract: Intelligence has been declared as a necessary, but not sufficient condition for creativity, which was subsequently translated into the so-called threshold hypothesis. This hypothesis predicts a change in the correlation between creativity and intelligence at around 1.33 standard deviations above population mean. Closer inspection of previous results—that report different thresholds or no threshold at all—suggests that a divergence is mostly due to the use of suboptimal data-analytical procedures. We apply and compare three methods that allow a continuous consideration of intelligence (e.g., local structural equation models that allows a latent variable analysis). Based on two multivariate studies (N1 = 456; N2 = 438) we examine the threshold of the creativity-intelligence relation with: a) scatterplots and heteroscedasticity analysis, b) segmented regression analysis, and c) local structural equation models. In sum, we found no evidence for the threshold hypothesis of creativity across different analytical approaches in both studies. Given the problematic history of the threshold hypothesis and its unequivocal rejection with appropriate multivariate methods we recommend to abandon the threshold once and for all.

People with disagreeable personalities (selfish, combative, and manipulative) do not have an advantage in pursuing power at work

People with disagreeable personalities (selfish, combative, and manipulative) do not have an advantage in pursuing power at work. Cameron Anderson, Daron L. Sharps, Christopher J. Soto, and Oliver P. John. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, August 31, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2005088117

Significance: Are disagreeable individuals more likely to attain power than agreeable individuals? This question is important because highly disagreeable individuals in positions of power can do a lot of damage. For example, CEOs who are nasty and bullying create cultures of abuse and tend to lead their organizations to fail. In two longitudinal prospective studies, we found that disagreeableness did not predict the attainment of power. Selfish, deceitful, and aggressive individuals were no more likely to attain power than were generous, trustworthy, and nice individuals. Why not? Disagreeable individuals were intimidating, which would have elevated their power, but they also had poorer interpersonal relationships at work, which offset any possible power advantage their behavior might have provided.

Abstract: Does being disagreeable—that is, behaving in aggressive, selfish, and manipulative ways—help people attain power? This question has long captivated philosophers, scholars, and laypeople alike, and yet prior empirical findings have been inconclusive. In the current research, we conducted two preregistered prospective longitudinal studies in which we measured participants’ disagreeableness prior to entering the labor market and then assessed the power they attained in the context of their work organization ∼14 y later when their professional careers had unfolded. Both studies found disagreeable individuals did not attain higher power as opposed to extraverted individuals who did gain higher power in their organizations. Furthermore, the null relationship between disagreeableness and power was not moderated by individual differences, such as gender or ethnicity, or by contextual variables, such as organizational culture. What can account for this null relationship? A close examination of behavior patterns in the workplace found that disagreeable individuals engaged in two distinct patterns of behavior that offset each other’s effects on power attainment: They engaged in more dominant-aggressive behavior, which positively predicted attaining higher power, but also engaged in less communal and generous behavior, which predicted attaining less power. These two effects, when combined, appeared to cancel each other out and led to a null correlation between disagreeableness and power.

Keywords: disagreeablenesspowerextraversionhierarchy

Less sexual functioning problems with frequent pornography use, more functioning problems with problematic pornography use

Are sexual functioning problems associated with frequent pornography use and/or problematic pornography use? Results from a large community survey including males and females. Beáta Bőthe et al. Addictive Behaviors, Volume 112, January 2021, 106603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106603

Highlights
• PPU had positive, moderate links to sexual function problems in males and females.
• FPU had negative, weak links to sexual function problems in males and females.
• FPU and PPU should be discussed separately concerning its links to sexual outcomes.

Abstract: There is much debate regarding whether pornography use has positive or negative associations with sexuality-related measures such as sexual functioning problems. The present study aimed to examine differential correlates between quantity (frequency of pornography use–FPU) and severity (problematic pornography use–PPU) of pornography use with respect to sexual functioning problems among both males and females. Multi-group structural equation modeling was conducted to investigate hypothesized associations between PPU, FPU, and sexual functioning problems among males and females (N = 14,581 participants; females = 4,352; 29.8%; Mage=33.6 years, SDage=11.0), controlling for age, sexual orientation, relationship status, and masturbation frequency. The hypothesized model had excellent fit to the data (CFI = 0.962, TLI = 0.961, RMSEA = 0.057 [95% CI = 0.056-0.057]). Similar associations were identified in both genders, with all pathways being statistically significant (p < .001). PPU had positive, moderate associations (βmales=0.37, βfemales=0.38), while FPU had negative, weak associations with sexual functioning problems (βmales=-0.17, βfemales=-0.17). Although FPU and PPU had a positive, moderate association, they should be assessed and discussed separately when examining potential associations with sexuality-related outcomes. Given that PPU was positively and moderately and FPU negatively and weakly associated with problems in sexual functioning, it is important to consider both PPU and FPU in relation to sexual functioning problems.

Keywords: Pornography use frequencyProblematic pornography useSexual dysfunctionSexual functioning problemsSexual problems

4. Discussion

Given seemingly inconsistent results concerning associations between pornography use and sexual outcomes (Grubbs and Gola, 2019, Vaillancourt-Morel et al., 2019), the aim of the present study was to examine potentially different roles for FPU and PPU with respect to relationships with sexual functioning problems among males and females. FPU had a weak, negative association with sexual functioning problems, and PPU had a moderate, positive association with sexual functioning problems. Although most studies of PPU have investigated males (Bőthe et al., 2020, Dwulit and Rzymski, 2019, Gola et al., 2016, Kraus and Rosenberg, 2014, Kraus et al., 2017)—especially when associations between PPU and sexual functioning problems have been examined (Grubbs and Gola, 2019, Landripet and Štulhofer, 2015, Prause and Pfaus, 2015, Wéry and Billieux, 2016)—the present results suggest that similar associations may be identified among females concerning associations between PPU, FPU, and sexual functioning problems. Implications are discussed below.

4.1. Differences between the quantity and severity of pornography use

Similarities and differences between FPU and PPU is an understudied field within behavioral addictions and problematic sexual behaviors (Gola et al., 2016, Grubbs et al., 2018, Grubbs et al., 2018). The results of the present study corroborate recent findings (Bőthe et al., 2020, Gola et al., 2016, Grubbs et al., 2018, Grubbs et al., 2018) suggesting that FPU and PPU are distinct yet related patterns of pornography consumption. In the present largescale cross-sectional study, although FPU and PPU were positively and moderately related, their associations with sexual functioning problems were in opposite directions. Therefore, the results suggest that FPU and PPU represent related yet distinct aspects of pornography use not only in the case of treatment-seeking populations (Gola et al., 2016) but also in community samples, particularly as they relate to sexual functioning problems.

These findings resonate with the “high engagement versus problematic engagement” model of potentially addictive behaviors (Billieux et al., 2019, Charlton and Danforth, 2007, Charlton, 2002). According to this model, some characteristics should be considered as “core” symptoms of problematic behaviors, while others represent “peripheral” symptoms that may be present in both frequent but non-problematic use and in problematic use, such as FPU (Billieux et al., 2019, Bőthe et al., 2020, Charlton and Danforth, 2007, Charlton, 2002). In other words, individuals may experience FPU but not necessarily PPU. In contrast, individuals with PPU may also report core and peripheral symptoms (including FPU) (Bőthe et al., 2020). As found here and elsewhere (Billieux et al., 2019, Charlton and Danforth, 2007, Charlton, 2002), when only FPU was present (i.e., a peripheral symptom), no major adverse consequences may be observed. However, when PPU is present (i.e., both core and peripheral symptoms), it is more likely that adverse and harmful consequences will be observed. Similar observations have been reported regarding other online behaviors with respect to measures of quantity/frequency and problematic use, such as internet use (Chak & Leung, 2004), Facebook use (Koc & Gulyagci, 2013), online gaming (Király et al., 2017, Orosz et al., 2018), and problematic television series watching (Tóth-Király et al., 2017, Tóth‐Király et al., 2019).

Taking findings together, while quantities of the aforementioned activities were often unrelated to maladaptive states and conditions, problematic engagement in these online behaviors has been related to maladaptive or harmful measures. Therefore, thorough examinations are needed when effects of potentially problematic online behaviors are investigated, taking into consideration not only the quantity of behaviors but also quality levels of engagement.

4.2. Differentiated roles for quantity and severity of pornography use in sexual functioning problems among males and females

While FPU had a weak, negative association with sexual functioning problems, PPU had a positive and moderate association, suggesting that FPU may be associated with fewer sexual functioning problems in some cases (Landripet & Štulhofer, 2015). Nevertheless, males reported using pornography significantly more frequently, and reported higher levels of PPU, compared to females. However, females reported significantly higher levels of sexual functioning problems than males.

Differentiated relationships with FPU and PPU may relate to several underlying biopsychosocial factors. Speculatively, FPU may stem from stronger sexual desire and relate to lower levels of sexual functioning problems, perhaps due to variety in pornographic material that could lead to easier and quicker responses to different offline sexual stimuli (Prause & Pfaus, 2015). FPU may facilitate sexual thoughts, which, in turn, may lead to quicker sexual responses in and thus not lead to sexual functioning problems assessed here (Watson & Smith, 2012). Another possible explanation concerning the negative association between FPU and sexual functioning problems could reflect familiarity generated from viewing pornographic materials (Griffiths, 2000, Kohut et al., 2017, Watson and Smith, 2012), whereby individuals with FPU may feel more sexual comfort when engaging in offline sexual activities because given pornography-related familiarity with sexual activities (Kohut et al., 2017). Based on qualitative analysis of males and females, the most frequently reported effect of pornography use was “no negative impacts”, followed by using pornography as an information source, for sexual experimentation, and for sexual comfort. Thus, higher levels of sexual comfort and self-acceptance, and lower levels of anxiety, shame, and guilt concerning sexual behaviors may be related to FPU. Increased arousal and orgasm response, interest in sex, and more acceptance towards different sexual activities and more sexual experimentation were also reported as positive effects of pornography use (Kohut et al., 2017). Alternate explanations include that individuals with poor sexual functioning may be less likely to engage in FPU, individuals may not be fully aware of pornography-use-related sexual problems and some sexual problems may not have been captured by the assessment instrument. Nevertheless, FPU explained only a very small amount of the variance related to sexual functioning problems in the present study, indicating that other factors are likely to play a more important role in the development and maintenance of sexual functioning (McCabe et al., 2016).

PPU may be associated with increased masturbation and pornography “binges” (i.e., using pornography multiple times or hours per day), based on results from a ten-week long diary study with treatment-seeking males (Wordecha et al., 2018). Therefore, males who excessively view pornographic materials may be more likely to be in a refractory period when trying to engage in sexual activities with their partner, potentially leading to sexual functioning problems (Ley et al., 2014). For some, sexual intercourse with one’s partner may not be as stimulating as online pornographic material (e.g., it may not provide as much novelty as online pornography). Furthermore, clinical and case reports suggest that pornography use may alter arousal templates (Brand, Blycker, & Potenza, 2019). These potential impacts should be considered in future studies. Additional possible explanations exist. For example, among men seeking treatment for compulsive sexual behaviors, severity of PPU was associated positively with sexual anxiety and negatively with sexual satisfaction (Kowalewska, Kraus, Lew-Starowicz, Gustavsson, & Gola, 2019); as these factors may impact sexual dysfunction, further study is warranted.

As males and females with compulsive-pornography-use profiles (likely PPU) reported lower levels of sexual functioning problems than individuals with a highly distressed non-compulsive profile (Vaillancourt-Morel et al., 2017), stress may impact sexual functioning problems (McCabe et al., 2016). Stress reduction and emotion regulation are frequently reported motivations in PPU, and interventions involving training in emotion regulation (e.g., mindfulness) may be effective in reducing PPU (Bőthe et al., 2020, Levin et al., 2012, Wéry and Billieux, 2016, Sniewski and Farvid, 2019). Individuals experiencing high levels of stress may engage in PPU, leading to sexual functioning problems, which, in turn, could result in further stress. Further studies should examine this possibility and relationships between stress, PPU and sexual functioning problems generally.

In sum, different mechanisms may underlie FPU and PPU. Such mechanisms may both directly and indirectly relate to sexual functioning problems in complex manners. When assessing relationships between pornography use and sexual functioning problems, future research should consider both FPU and PPU and other aspects of pornography and specific aspects of sexual functioning problems.

4.3. Limitations and future studies

Study findings should be considered alongside limitations. Self-report methods have biases (e.g., underreporting and overreporting). Causality cannot be inferred from cross-sectional studies. The internal consistency of the SFS was less than optimal (perhaps related to diversity of the 4 domains assessed), and this may have affected findings, as could have the limited number of domains and lack of specificity. For example, context specificity is not detailed in the SFS (e.g., partnered versus solitary sexual activities), and individuals with hypersexuality have reported sexual functioning problems during partnered sex but not during pornography use (Voon et al., 2014).

Moral incongruence and religiosity were not assessed, which may limit generalizability. Moral incongruence and religiosity may relate to PPU (Grubbs and Perry, 2019, Grubbs et al., 2019, Grubbs et al., 2020, Grubbs et al., 2020, Lewczuk et al., 2020), with individuals with higher levels of morality and religiosity perhaps showing stronger associations between FPU and PPU than those with lower levels of morality and religiosity (Grubbs, Lee, Hoagland, Kraus, & Perry, 2020). As such, future studies should include assessments of moral incongruence in relation to pornography content (e.g., aggressive sexual behaviors often targeted towards women (Bridges, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, Sun, & Liberman, 2010), particularly Black women (Fritz, Malic, Paul, & Zhou, 2020), and rape, incest and other pornography genres (Rothman, Kaczmarsky, Burke, Jansen, & Baughman, 2015)and other domains in which people may experience morality-related conflicts. The present study examined a general, community sample. Given that stronger associations may be present between FPU and PPU in treatment-seeking and clinical populations (Bőthe et al., 2018, Bőthe et al., 2020, Brand et al., 2011, Gola et al., 2016, Gola et al., 2017, Grubbs et al., 2015, Grubbs et al., 2019, Lewczuk et al., 2017, Twohig et al., 2009, Voon et al., 2014), the findings of the present study concerning the associations between FPU, PPU, and sexual functioning problems may not generalize to treatment-seeking or clinical populations.

Longer-term longitudinal studies are needed to examine further the nature of the relationships and how they may change over time among both males (Grubbs & Gola, 2019) and females. Individuals who may have developed sexual functioning problems that could have been related to prior pornography viewing (before past-year) may potentially contribute to weakening relationships between FPU and sexual functioning problems. Also, individuals with sexual functioning problems may fear performance failure. Consequently, they may choose online pornography viewing instead of engaging in offline sexual behaviors with their partners (Miner et al., 2016). Additionally, while quantity and FPU are typically related, they are not equivalent and may relate differently to clinically relevant aspects of pornography use (e.g., when trying to abstain; (Fernandez, Tee, & Fernandez, 2017). Qualitatively analyzing narratives of the development and maintenance of one's PPU (Wordecha et al., 2018) and sexual functioning problems may be fruitful in identifying possible mediator and moderator variables such as moral incongruence (Brand et al., 2019, Grubbs and Perry, 2019), accessibility of pornography (Rissel et al., 2017), and other factors (Vaillancourt-Morel et al., 2019).

Pleasant sleep paralysis was found to be a fairly common experience (23%); episodes were emotionally complex, with pleasant episodes often involving some admixture of fear

Could sleep paralysis be pleasant? Monika Kliková  Brian A. Sharpless  Jitka Bušková. Journal of Sleep Research, August 31 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13154

Abstract: Sleep paralysis is an inability to move at sleep onset or upon awakening. It is often a distressing experience that can be associated with significant clinical consequences. Few studies have focussed on pleasant sleep paralysis episodes. The present study aimed to determine the relative prevalence of pleasant episodes of sleep paralysis as well as variables that may make them more likely to occur. Participants (N = 172) with recurrent episodes of sleep paralysis completed a battery of questionnaires investigating sleep paralysis episodes, trauma symptoms, life satisfaction, and Big Five personality traits. Pleasant sleep paralysis was found to be a fairly common experience (i.e. 23%). Episodes were emotionally complex, with pleasant episodes often involving some admixture of fear. In terms of hallucinations, pleasant episodes were more likely to involve vestibular‐motor sensations (i.e. illusory body movements) and some individuals reported an ability to induce these hallucinations. Contrary to expectation, neither lower trauma symptomatology nor higher levels of reported life satisfaction predicted pleasant sleep paralysis. However, the ability to lucid dream and higher levels of trait openness to new experiences appeared to make pleasant episodes more likely. Clinical implications are discussed.