Sex in the dark: Sex differences on three measures of dark side personality. Adrian Furnham, George Horne. Acta Psychologica, Volume 234, April 2023, 103876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103876
Abstract: This study examined sex differences in the scores on three different measures of the personality disorders (PDs) all derived from on-line surveys. Two groups (total N = 871) completed the Coolidge Axis-II Inventory which assessed 14 PDs; two groups (total N = 732) completed the Short Dark Tetrad which assessed 4 PDs; four groups (total N = 1558) completed the Personality Inventory for DSM-5—Brief Form which assessed 5 PD dimensions. Cohen's d after ANOVAs, and binary regression analysis revealed consistent findings. In this study we calculated 63 d statistics of which 5 were d > 0.50 and 28 were d > 0.20. In two samples, each using two different instruments, men scored higher than women on Anti-Social, Narcissistic and Sadistic PD which is a consistent finding in the literature. Speculations are made about the origin of these differences. Limitations are acknowledged.
Keywords: SexPersonalityTraitsDisordersEffect sizeBright/dark side
4. Discussion
The results of this study are largely consistent with previous research in this area, and confirms they hypotheses. This paper raises a number of points. First, the consistency of the PD sex differences across samples who took the same test, and second across PDs measured between different tests. With regard to the consistency between samples there seemed “reasonable” agreement particularly with those that were most and least significantly different. In all, we had eight participant groups with an 232 < N < 506 who were recruited on-line. In no instance did analyses show opposite results with the exception of one group tested on the DSM-5 where men scored higher than women on the Negative Affectively scale in contrast to the other three groups. Thus, we have demonstrated the generalisability of results across very different measures, in eight different samples.
A major question concerns sex differences in “bright-” as opposed to “dark-side” traits. Furnham and Treglown (2021) who looked at six tests found the Cohen's d statistic showed very few (3 out of 130) differences >0.50. In a study of dark-side traits, Furnham and Grover, 2022a, Furnham and Grover, 2022b found a Cohen's d statistic showed very few (5 out of 44) differences >0.20. In this study however we calculated 63 d statistics of which 5 were d > 0.50 and 28 were d > 0.20. Thus, it appears there are more differences on dark-, as opposed to bright-side measures. This finding requires an explanation and further investigations. However, we have to acknowledge that overall, there are both relatively few and small sex differences, an observation made by many in this area.
We were also able to compare sex differences on different measures of the same trait as the SCATI and the Dark Tetrad both measured Anti-Social, Narcissistic and Sadistic PD. This was consistent between the samples and the instruments showing the following d scores: Anti-Social: 0.30, 0.28, 63, 0.69; Narcissistic: 0.26, 0.84, 0.32, 0.83 and Sadistic PD 0.41; 0.25, 0.80, 0.49. These results confirm the previous literature on Anti-Social and Narcissistic PD but highlight the role of Sadistic PD which, admittedly does not appear as a PD in any of the DSM manuals (American Psychiatric Association, 2000, American Psychiatric Association, 2015). It explains also why so many studies on powerful derailed individuals nearly always highlight men rather than women (Babiak & Hare, 2006).
An examination of the Binary Logistic Regressions showed that the Exp(B) varied mainly between 0.80 and 1.20 the lowest being 0.63 for Antagonistic for Group 1 and the highest being 1.68 for Negative Effect for Group 1. Again, depending on cut-interpretations these could be considered high or low.
However, it does appear from this data that having a PD is predominantly a “male problem” in that on all four Tetrad traits, and four of the five DSM-5 dimensions males scored significantly higher than females across all samples. The SCATI did show that where there were consistent findings across the two samples and a d > 0.10 women did score higher on Borderline, Dependent, and Schizotypal, which has been established in previous studies.
There appears to be relatively little theoretical development in the PD literature about the “causes” of the different PDs that may lead to very clear hypothesis testing. Whilst it would not be difficult to develop an evolutionary-based theory explaining why men might be higher on Anti-Social and Narcissistic PD it seems much more difficult to explain why women might score more highly on other PDs like Borderline or Schizotypal. In this sense few of the sex difference studies in PD are theoretically, rather than psychometrically, driven.
5. Conclusion
The strengths of this paper was to report sex difference in the PDs using multiple measures (three) and multiple samples (eight). The results suggest that compared to studies of sex differences in bright-side (normal) personality where sex differences are common but small, sex differences in (some) dark-side traits are consistently larger.
This study has implications for the theory, measurement and indeed treatment of the PDs. From an evolutionary psychology perspective it seems possible to explain some of these differences: for instance, why boldness, fearlessness and self-confidence maybe beneficial to males, though in excess a disadvantage. Equally it may be possible to explain some sex differences in the traditional socialisation of children into established sex roles.
As the movement of PD researchers from a categorical to a dimensional perspective progresses we should be able to inspect sex differences seeking to establish consistency of findings and following that explanations.
6. Limitations
There are frequent critiques that online survey data is often problematic with participants being perfunctory in their responses. In each study we included IQ items as well as other checks to be able to inspect the quality of the responses. In most studies we removed a small number of participants before the analysis with concerns about the quality of their data.
This study explored the data bank of a research group. Nearly all the participants were functioning working adults and not a student or clinical sample, though it is possible that a small number were present in each study. Although we had a lot of data on each participant it was not consistent between samples. Furthermore, it would have been desirable to have a lot more data on each person such as their education and general mental health.
Of the two categorical measures the SCATI has been used in a number of studies and appears to have adequate psychometric properties but is not a particularly well-known measure. The Dark Tetrad measure on the other hand is relatively new though attracting a good deal of attention (Alavi et al., 2022; Fernández-del-Río et al., 2022; Jain et al., 2022). However, the DSM-5 is now 10 years old and has been used in many studies. Studies such as this serve to describe sex differences but give no indication in their cause or consequence. Thus, they can show that differences exist but not why.
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