Investigating the relationship between olfactory acuity, disgust, and mating strategies. Marjorie L. Prokosch Zachary Airington Damian R. Murray. Evolution and Human Behavior, August 15 2020,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.08.002
Abstract: Although humans' sense of smell is relatively diminished compared to other species, olfaction is still a central sensory modality through which people evaluate both potential threats and prospective romantic partners. Despite olfaction's role in interpersonal relationships and disease avoidant responses, however, it remains unknown whether variation in olfactory acuity is associated with disease- and mating-relevant psychological constructs and behaviors. In the current exploratory study, we examined the relationships between olfactory acuity, disgust sensitivity, and mating strategies in a sample of undergraduate students (N = 162) at a university in the Southern United States using an extended assessment of olfactory acuity (measuring olfactory threshold, discrimination, and identification). Results revealed that people with greater discrimination acuity were higher in dispositional sexual disgust, but not pathogen or moral disgust. People with greater discrimination acuity were also less inclined towards short-term mating. Further, sexual disgust mediated the relationship between discrimination acuity and short-term mating orientation. These results provide further evidence for the importance of olfaction and olfaction-related disgust in close relationships.
Keywords: OlfactionDisgustMating strategySociosexualityIndividual differences
Saturday, August 15, 2020
Women’s demand for redistribution is higher; the gender difference appears only when the source of inequality is based on relative abilities, but not when it is based on luck; men are more overconfident on their abilities
Overconfidence and gender gaps in redistributive preferences: Cross-Country experimental evidence. Thomas Buser et al. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Volume 178, October 2020, Pages 267-286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.07.005
Abstract: Gender differences in voting patterns and political attitudes towards redistribution are well-documented. The experimental gender literature suggests several plausible behavioral explanations behind these differences, relating to gender differences in confidence concerning future relative income position, risk aversion, and social preferences. We use data from lab experiments on preferences for redistribution conducted in the U.S. and several European countries to investigate gender differences and their causes. On aggregate, women’ s demand for redistribution is higher than men’ s, but the differences vary considerably across locations and countries. Moreover, the gender difference appears only when the source of inequality is based on relative abilities, but not when it is based on luck. Our most robust finding is that across all sampled locations, men’ s relatively higher (over)confidence in their abilities, in comparison to women, leads them to specify lower redistribution levels. We discuss the role of confidence in accounting for gender differences in political and redistributive choices outside the lab.
Keywords: GenderRedistributionOverconfidenceRisk attitudesVotingTaxation
Abstract: Gender differences in voting patterns and political attitudes towards redistribution are well-documented. The experimental gender literature suggests several plausible behavioral explanations behind these differences, relating to gender differences in confidence concerning future relative income position, risk aversion, and social preferences. We use data from lab experiments on preferences for redistribution conducted in the U.S. and several European countries to investigate gender differences and their causes. On aggregate, women’ s demand for redistribution is higher than men’ s, but the differences vary considerably across locations and countries. Moreover, the gender difference appears only when the source of inequality is based on relative abilities, but not when it is based on luck. Our most robust finding is that across all sampled locations, men’ s relatively higher (over)confidence in their abilities, in comparison to women, leads them to specify lower redistribution levels. We discuss the role of confidence in accounting for gender differences in political and redistributive choices outside the lab.
Keywords: GenderRedistributionOverconfidenceRisk attitudesVotingTaxation
Speed of perceived time is slower for those of higher IQ
Measures of Temporal Perception as Predictive Factors for Individual Intelligence and Further Relationships Between Intelligence and Temporal Perception. Cole Tibbs. Capella Univ, Aug 2020. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343530713
Abstract: Intelligence (IQ) and speed of perceived time (SPT) are known to strongly correlate with numerous factors, including reaction time, inter-hemispheric transfer, and cerebellum volume. While these relationships are well understood, very little evidence has been presented for the relationship between intelligence and speed of perceived time themselves. This essay aims to determine the sources and strength of the relationship between IQ and SPT. The author posits that a negative correlation exists between IQ and SPT. A review of relevant literature provided insight into connections between multiple variables inversely correlated to IQ and SPT, respectively. A correlation of r = -0.606, R2 = 0.368 between IQ and SPT is predicted. A study of 117 nationally representative adult participants is used to support the predictive ability of intelligence based on SPT, reaction time (RT), and number memory (NM). The results demonstrate correlation between IQ and SPT as r = -0.654, R2 = 0.428, p < .0001, confirming the predicted value and supporting the primary hypothesis. This paper highlights the correlation between intelligence and speed of perceived time. It also highlights a 46.2% variability of IQ attributed to SPT and RT. Implications are discussed. Recommendations for future investigation are given.
Abstract: Intelligence (IQ) and speed of perceived time (SPT) are known to strongly correlate with numerous factors, including reaction time, inter-hemispheric transfer, and cerebellum volume. While these relationships are well understood, very little evidence has been presented for the relationship between intelligence and speed of perceived time themselves. This essay aims to determine the sources and strength of the relationship between IQ and SPT. The author posits that a negative correlation exists between IQ and SPT. A review of relevant literature provided insight into connections between multiple variables inversely correlated to IQ and SPT, respectively. A correlation of r = -0.606, R2 = 0.368 between IQ and SPT is predicted. A study of 117 nationally representative adult participants is used to support the predictive ability of intelligence based on SPT, reaction time (RT), and number memory (NM). The results demonstrate correlation between IQ and SPT as r = -0.654, R2 = 0.428, p < .0001, confirming the predicted value and supporting the primary hypothesis. This paper highlights the correlation between intelligence and speed of perceived time. It also highlights a 46.2% variability of IQ attributed to SPT and RT. Implications are discussed. Recommendations for future investigation are given.
Voting Republican was associated with higher levels of commitment compared with voting Democrat; being partnered with someone voting Republican was associated with higher relationship adjustment & commitment
Fangmeier, T. L., Stanley, S. M., Knopp, K., & Rhoades, G. K. (2020). Political party identification and romantic relationship quality. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 9(3), 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/cfp0000141
Abstract: Although there are studies on voting similarity in mate selection, very little research has examined party identification and relationship quality. We assessed associations between reports of personal and partner voting behavior (Democrat, Republican, or Independent) and both relationship adjustment and commitment to one’s partner. We used a national (U.S.) sample of individuals (N = 510) in their 20s and 30s who were mostly in different-sex, serious relationships (Mdn duration = 5.25 years; 50% married). Controlling for age, college graduation, income, religiosity, minority status, and duration of relationship, voting Republican was associated with higher levels of commitment compared with voting Democrat. Similarly, being partnered with someone voting Republican was associated with higher relationship adjustment and commitment compared with being partnered with someone voting Democrat. Notably, differences in commitment were found only among those who were not already married or engaged. Findings were largely consistent with numerous online reports of survey data that have shown modestly greater relationship quality among those who report being politically conservative. Although research has shown that people are less attracted to those who vote differently and that voting differently can be associated with lower relationship quality, we did not generally find perceived voting similarity to be associated with relationship adjustment or commitment. There was one exception: In exploratory analyses, Republicans paired with Democrats tended to report substantially lower relationship adjustment than if paired with Republicans. Implications for political differences among intimate partners and clinical work around these themes are discussed.
Abstract: Although there are studies on voting similarity in mate selection, very little research has examined party identification and relationship quality. We assessed associations between reports of personal and partner voting behavior (Democrat, Republican, or Independent) and both relationship adjustment and commitment to one’s partner. We used a national (U.S.) sample of individuals (N = 510) in their 20s and 30s who were mostly in different-sex, serious relationships (Mdn duration = 5.25 years; 50% married). Controlling for age, college graduation, income, religiosity, minority status, and duration of relationship, voting Republican was associated with higher levels of commitment compared with voting Democrat. Similarly, being partnered with someone voting Republican was associated with higher relationship adjustment and commitment compared with being partnered with someone voting Democrat. Notably, differences in commitment were found only among those who were not already married or engaged. Findings were largely consistent with numerous online reports of survey data that have shown modestly greater relationship quality among those who report being politically conservative. Although research has shown that people are less attracted to those who vote differently and that voting differently can be associated with lower relationship quality, we did not generally find perceived voting similarity to be associated with relationship adjustment or commitment. There was one exception: In exploratory analyses, Republicans paired with Democrats tended to report substantially lower relationship adjustment than if paired with Republicans. Implications for political differences among intimate partners and clinical work around these themes are discussed.
Although there is a small segment that chooses the newer option for what they infer to be its higher efficacy, most consumers believe that an older drug is both safer and more efficacious
Older is better: Consumers prefer older drugs. Yun Jie. Psychology & Marketing, August 13 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21395
Abstract: Despite increasing research attention to healthcare marketing in academia and the concerted effort of the pharmaceutical industry to market its latest products, limited research has explored the effect of launch time on individuals' drug choices. Building upon findings in medical literature that many newly launched drugs are indeed no better than existing ones, this study found that the majority of consumers consistently prefer older drugs when both options are claimed equally safe and/or effective. The reason is that consumers disregard declarative information and, instead, make their own inferences. Although there is a small segment that chooses the newer option for what they infer to be its higher efficacy, most consumers believe that an older drug is both safer and more efficacious. Further, promotion‐focused consumers are more likely to choose newer drugs. The underlying mechanism for how promotion focus affects choice is identified. A sample of practicing doctors cross‐validated our findings, which have implications for practitioners in the pharmaceutical industry.
Abstract: Despite increasing research attention to healthcare marketing in academia and the concerted effort of the pharmaceutical industry to market its latest products, limited research has explored the effect of launch time on individuals' drug choices. Building upon findings in medical literature that many newly launched drugs are indeed no better than existing ones, this study found that the majority of consumers consistently prefer older drugs when both options are claimed equally safe and/or effective. The reason is that consumers disregard declarative information and, instead, make their own inferences. Although there is a small segment that chooses the newer option for what they infer to be its higher efficacy, most consumers believe that an older drug is both safer and more efficacious. Further, promotion‐focused consumers are more likely to choose newer drugs. The underlying mechanism for how promotion focus affects choice is identified. A sample of practicing doctors cross‐validated our findings, which have implications for practitioners in the pharmaceutical industry.
16 Possible Factors for Sweden’s High Covid Death Rate among the Nordics: It is plausible that Sweden’s lighter lockdown accounts for but a small part of Sweden’s higher Covid death rate
16 Possible Factors for Sweden’s High Covid Death Rate among the Nordics. Daniel B. Klein, Joakim Book, Christian Bjørnskov. SSRN, August 14, 2020. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3674138
Abstract: What accounts for Sweden’s high Covid death rate among the Nordics? One factor could be Sweden’s lighter lockdown. But we suggest 15 other possible factors. Most significant are: (1) the “dry-tinder” situation in Sweden; (2) Stockholm’s larger population; (3) Sweden’s higher immigrant population; (4) in Sweden immigrants probably more often work in the elderly care system; (5) Sweden has a greater proportion of people in elderly care; (6) Stockholm’s “sport-break” was a week later than the other three capital cities; (7) Stockholm’s system of elderly care collects especially vulnerable people in nursing homes. Other possible factors are: (8) the Swedish elderly and health care system may have done less to try to cure elderly Covid patients; (9) Sweden may have been relatively understocked in protective equipment and sanitizers; (10) Sweden may have been slower to separate Covid patients in nursing homes; (11) Sweden may have been slower to implement staff testing and changes in protocols and equipage; (12) Sweden elderly care workers may have done more cross-facility work; (13) Sweden might have larger nursing homes; (14) Stockholmers might travel more to the Alpine regions; (15) Sweden might be quicker to count a death "a Covid death.” We give evidence for these other 15 possible factors. It is plausible that Sweden’s lighter lockdown accounts for but a small part of Sweden’s higher Covid death rate.
Keywords: Coronavirus, pandemic, lockdown, elderly care, nursing home
Abstract: What accounts for Sweden’s high Covid death rate among the Nordics? One factor could be Sweden’s lighter lockdown. But we suggest 15 other possible factors. Most significant are: (1) the “dry-tinder” situation in Sweden; (2) Stockholm’s larger population; (3) Sweden’s higher immigrant population; (4) in Sweden immigrants probably more often work in the elderly care system; (5) Sweden has a greater proportion of people in elderly care; (6) Stockholm’s “sport-break” was a week later than the other three capital cities; (7) Stockholm’s system of elderly care collects especially vulnerable people in nursing homes. Other possible factors are: (8) the Swedish elderly and health care system may have done less to try to cure elderly Covid patients; (9) Sweden may have been relatively understocked in protective equipment and sanitizers; (10) Sweden may have been slower to separate Covid patients in nursing homes; (11) Sweden may have been slower to implement staff testing and changes in protocols and equipage; (12) Sweden elderly care workers may have done more cross-facility work; (13) Sweden might have larger nursing homes; (14) Stockholmers might travel more to the Alpine regions; (15) Sweden might be quicker to count a death "a Covid death.” We give evidence for these other 15 possible factors. It is plausible that Sweden’s lighter lockdown accounts for but a small part of Sweden’s higher Covid death rate.
Keywords: Coronavirus, pandemic, lockdown, elderly care, nursing home
Friday, August 14, 2020
Gender gaps in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) participation are larger in societies where women have greater freedom of choice... Why?
A Cultural Psychological Model of Cross-National Variation in Gender Gaps in STEM Participation. Nur Soylu Yalcinkaya, Glenn Adams, Personality and Social Psychology Review, August 13, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868320947005
Abstract: Gender gaps in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) participation are larger in societies where women have greater freedom of choice. We provide a cultural psychological model to explain this pattern. We consider how individualistic/post-materialistic cultural patterns in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrial, Rich, and Democratic) settings foster a self-expressive construction of academic choice, whereby affirming femininity/masculinity and ensuring identity fit become primary goals. Striving to fulfill these goals can lead men toward, and women away from, STEM pursuit, resulting in a large gender gap. In Majority World settings, on the contrary, collectivistic/materialistic cultural patterns foster a security-oriented construction, whereby achieving financial security and fulfilling relational expectations become primary goals of academic choice. These goals can lead both women and men toward secure and lucrative fields like STEM, resulting in a smaller gender gap. Finally, gender gaps in STEM participation feed back into the STEM=male stereotype. We discuss the implications of our model for research and theory, and intervention and policy.
Keywords: gender differences, STEM, academic choice, self-expression, cultural psychology
Abstract: Gender gaps in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) participation are larger in societies where women have greater freedom of choice. We provide a cultural psychological model to explain this pattern. We consider how individualistic/post-materialistic cultural patterns in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrial, Rich, and Democratic) settings foster a self-expressive construction of academic choice, whereby affirming femininity/masculinity and ensuring identity fit become primary goals. Striving to fulfill these goals can lead men toward, and women away from, STEM pursuit, resulting in a large gender gap. In Majority World settings, on the contrary, collectivistic/materialistic cultural patterns foster a security-oriented construction, whereby achieving financial security and fulfilling relational expectations become primary goals of academic choice. These goals can lead both women and men toward secure and lucrative fields like STEM, resulting in a smaller gender gap. Finally, gender gaps in STEM participation feed back into the STEM=male stereotype. We discuss the implications of our model for research and theory, and intervention and policy.
Keywords: gender differences, STEM, academic choice, self-expression, cultural psychology
Male secondary sexual characters may have evolved to advertise males that carry large numbers of beneficial sexually transmitted microbes highly potent against pathogens
Reinoculation of Ideas about the Benefits of Copulation: Reply to Rowe et al. Michael P. Lombardo, Patrick A. Thorpe, Harry W. Power. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, August 13 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2020.07.008
Our bSTM (beneficial sexually transmitted microbes) hypothesis of copulation may explain why female birds either copulate repeatedly with a single mate or with multiple partners when only a single copulation may be sufficient to fertilize an entire clutch. We hypothesized that females may directly benefit from high frequencies of copulation and multiple copulation partners if they are inoculated with bSTMs that function as therapy against current infection or as ‘vaccination’ against future infection. Our hypothesis focused on birds but may apply to other animals.
The bSTM hypothesis requires that beneficial microbes are acquired by females during copulation. Moran and Dunbar [8] experimentally showed that female pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) acquire bSTMs that increase their resistance to parasitoids and fungal infections, increase their tolerance to heat stress, and facilitate their expansion to different host plants. Smith and Mueller [9] reviewed additional examples of bSTMs in humans and mosquitoes.
We predict that careful examination of STMs and their effects on their hosts is likely to identify more bSTMs in wild populations. The bSTM hypothesis assumes that the probability that a female becomes colonized by STMs increases with the number of her copulations with a single partner or with multiple partners. Observations that copulations with multiple partners increases the diversity of the reproductive microbiomes of female lizards [10] and mice [11] satisfy this assumption.
We predicted that male secondary sexual characters may have evolved to advertise males that carry large numbers of bSTMs highly potent against pSTMs, and Rowe et al. [2] reiterated this prediction. By showing a positive correlation between bill coloration, a sexually selected trait in male mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), and the bacteria-killing ability of their semen, Rowe et al. [12] demonstrated the possibility that sexual selection can mold signals associated with bSTMs. We expect that future research will discover male secondary sexual characteristics to be associated with a male’s ability to deliver bSTMs to females.
Our bSTM (beneficial sexually transmitted microbes) hypothesis of copulation may explain why female birds either copulate repeatedly with a single mate or with multiple partners when only a single copulation may be sufficient to fertilize an entire clutch. We hypothesized that females may directly benefit from high frequencies of copulation and multiple copulation partners if they are inoculated with bSTMs that function as therapy against current infection or as ‘vaccination’ against future infection. Our hypothesis focused on birds but may apply to other animals.
The bSTM hypothesis requires that beneficial microbes are acquired by females during copulation. Moran and Dunbar [8] experimentally showed that female pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) acquire bSTMs that increase their resistance to parasitoids and fungal infections, increase their tolerance to heat stress, and facilitate their expansion to different host plants. Smith and Mueller [9] reviewed additional examples of bSTMs in humans and mosquitoes.
We predict that careful examination of STMs and their effects on their hosts is likely to identify more bSTMs in wild populations. The bSTM hypothesis assumes that the probability that a female becomes colonized by STMs increases with the number of her copulations with a single partner or with multiple partners. Observations that copulations with multiple partners increases the diversity of the reproductive microbiomes of female lizards [10] and mice [11] satisfy this assumption.
We predicted that male secondary sexual characters may have evolved to advertise males that carry large numbers of bSTMs highly potent against pSTMs, and Rowe et al. [2] reiterated this prediction. By showing a positive correlation between bill coloration, a sexually selected trait in male mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), and the bacteria-killing ability of their semen, Rowe et al. [12] demonstrated the possibility that sexual selection can mold signals associated with bSTMs. We expect that future research will discover male secondary sexual characteristics to be associated with a male’s ability to deliver bSTMs to females.
Screening for Dark Personalities: The authors say they uncovered a novel link between sadism and sexuality, but sadists are not maladjusted
Screening for Dark Personalities: The Short Dark Tetrad (SD4). Delroy L. Paulhus et al. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, July 27, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000602
Abstract. Consensus is emerging that the constellation of dark personalities should include the sadistic personality. To build a four-factor measure, we modified and extended the Short Dark Triad (SD3) measure to include sadism. A series of three studies yielded the Short Dark Tetrad (SD4), a four subscale inventory with 7 items per construct. Study 1 (N = 868) applied exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to a diverse 48-item pool using data collected on MTurk. A 4-factor solution revealed a separate sadism factor, as well as a shifted Dark Triad. Study 2 (N = 999 students) applied EFA to a reduced 37-item set. Associations with adjustment and sex drive provided insight into unique personality dynamics of the four constructs. In Study 3 (N = 660), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the final 28 items showed acceptable fit for a four-factor solution. Moreover, the resulting 7-item subscales each showed coherent links with the Big Five and adjustment. In sum, the four-factor structure replicated across student and community samples. Although they overlap to a moderate degree, the four subscales show distinctive correlates – even with a control for acquiescence. We also uncovered a novel link between sadism and sexuality, but no association with maladjustment.
Keywords: dark personalities, questionnaire, sadism
Abstract. Consensus is emerging that the constellation of dark personalities should include the sadistic personality. To build a four-factor measure, we modified and extended the Short Dark Triad (SD3) measure to include sadism. A series of three studies yielded the Short Dark Tetrad (SD4), a four subscale inventory with 7 items per construct. Study 1 (N = 868) applied exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to a diverse 48-item pool using data collected on MTurk. A 4-factor solution revealed a separate sadism factor, as well as a shifted Dark Triad. Study 2 (N = 999 students) applied EFA to a reduced 37-item set. Associations with adjustment and sex drive provided insight into unique personality dynamics of the four constructs. In Study 3 (N = 660), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the final 28 items showed acceptable fit for a four-factor solution. Moreover, the resulting 7-item subscales each showed coherent links with the Big Five and adjustment. In sum, the four-factor structure replicated across student and community samples. Although they overlap to a moderate degree, the four subscales show distinctive correlates – even with a control for acquiescence. We also uncovered a novel link between sadism and sexuality, but no association with maladjustment.
Keywords: dark personalities, questionnaire, sadism
We found that men and women told larger and more frequent lies to their parents, with women telling the largest and most frequent lies of all to their fathers; both men & women frequently say they are chaster than really are
Papa Don’t Preach? Using Lies to Expose the Truth about Who Suppresses Female Sexuality. Dax J. Kellie, Barnaby J. W. Dixson & Robert C. Brooks. Human Nature (2020). Aug 14 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12110-020-09372-7
Abstract: The suppression of sexuality is culturally widespread, and women’s sexual promiscuity, activity, and enjoyment are almost always judged and punished more harshly than men’s. It remains disputed, however, to what end people suppress sexuality, and who benefits from the suppression of female sexuality. Different theories predict that women in general, men in general, women’s intimate partners, or parents benefit most. Here we use the lies women and men tell—or imagine telling—about their sexual histories as an indirect measure of who is most involved in the suppression of sexuality. We asked men and women what they would reply if asked questions by their mother, father, current partner, attractive confederate, and various same- or opposite-sex friends and colleagues about their number of previous sex partners, age at first romantic kiss, age at first consensual sex, and cheating on a previous partner or spouse. By comparing the size and direction of the lies that subjects told, we tested competing predictions of several cultural and evolutionary theories concerning why female sexuality is suppressed and who is driving its suppression. We found that men and women told larger and more frequent lies to their parents, with women telling the largest and most frequent lies of all to their fathers. Additionally, the majority of lies by both men and women were in sexually conservative directions. Our findings suggest that mothers, and especially fathers, restrict female sexuality.
Abstract: The suppression of sexuality is culturally widespread, and women’s sexual promiscuity, activity, and enjoyment are almost always judged and punished more harshly than men’s. It remains disputed, however, to what end people suppress sexuality, and who benefits from the suppression of female sexuality. Different theories predict that women in general, men in general, women’s intimate partners, or parents benefit most. Here we use the lies women and men tell—or imagine telling—about their sexual histories as an indirect measure of who is most involved in the suppression of sexuality. We asked men and women what they would reply if asked questions by their mother, father, current partner, attractive confederate, and various same- or opposite-sex friends and colleagues about their number of previous sex partners, age at first romantic kiss, age at first consensual sex, and cheating on a previous partner or spouse. By comparing the size and direction of the lies that subjects told, we tested competing predictions of several cultural and evolutionary theories concerning why female sexuality is suppressed and who is driving its suppression. We found that men and women told larger and more frequent lies to their parents, with women telling the largest and most frequent lies of all to their fathers. Additionally, the majority of lies by both men and women were in sexually conservative directions. Our findings suggest that mothers, and especially fathers, restrict female sexuality.
Subjective age changed during a global health crisis, with people feeling younger with the emergence of COVID-19; partly reflects a coping process of psychological distancing from older age (the most vulnerable group)
Changes in Subjective Age During COVID-19. Antonio Terracciano et al. The Gerontologist, gnaa104, August 7 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa104
Abstract
Background and Objectives: To examine change in subjective age with the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Two competing hypotheses were tested: (a) people felt increasingly older due to the stress generated by the pandemic; (b) people felt increasingly younger due to psychological distancing from older age, a vulnerability to COVID-19.
Research Design and Methods: An age and sex stratified sample of adults from across the United States (baseline N = 3,738) was assessed on three occasions: before the COVID-19 outbreak in late-January/early-February and during the outbreak in late-March and again in late-April. Multilevel modeling analysis examined change in subjective age and tested potential moderators of individual differences in the trajectory of subjective age.
Results: The average trajectory of subjective age followed a concave curve, with a nadir (feeling younger) during the second assessment in late-March. Older age, negative expectations about aging, absence of pre-existing conditions, and less stress during COVID-19 were associated with feeling younger but did not predict the rate of change. The only significant predictor of change in subjective age was the belief that the “coronavirus is only a threat to older adults”: The more individuals agreed with this statement, the more likely it was that they felt increasingly younger at follow-up.
Discussion and Implications: Subjective age changed during a global health crisis, with people feeling younger with the emergence COVID-19. The findings support the hypothesis that subjective age partly reflects a coping process of psychological distancing from older age, the age group most vulnerable to COVID-19.
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, Coronavirus, Age identity, Longitudinal, Multilevel Modeling
Abstract
Background and Objectives: To examine change in subjective age with the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Two competing hypotheses were tested: (a) people felt increasingly older due to the stress generated by the pandemic; (b) people felt increasingly younger due to psychological distancing from older age, a vulnerability to COVID-19.
Research Design and Methods: An age and sex stratified sample of adults from across the United States (baseline N = 3,738) was assessed on three occasions: before the COVID-19 outbreak in late-January/early-February and during the outbreak in late-March and again in late-April. Multilevel modeling analysis examined change in subjective age and tested potential moderators of individual differences in the trajectory of subjective age.
Results: The average trajectory of subjective age followed a concave curve, with a nadir (feeling younger) during the second assessment in late-March. Older age, negative expectations about aging, absence of pre-existing conditions, and less stress during COVID-19 were associated with feeling younger but did not predict the rate of change. The only significant predictor of change in subjective age was the belief that the “coronavirus is only a threat to older adults”: The more individuals agreed with this statement, the more likely it was that they felt increasingly younger at follow-up.
Discussion and Implications: Subjective age changed during a global health crisis, with people feeling younger with the emergence COVID-19. The findings support the hypothesis that subjective age partly reflects a coping process of psychological distancing from older age, the age group most vulnerable to COVID-19.
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, Coronavirus, Age identity, Longitudinal, Multilevel Modeling
How does animal welfare taste? Information regarding animal welfare affects hedonic liking & willingness to pay; consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels
How does animal welfare taste? Combining sensory and choice experiments to evaluate willingness to pay for animal welfare pork. Sabine Gross, Megan E. Waldrop, Jutta Roosen. Food Quality and Preference, August 13 2020, 104055, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.104055
Highlights
• Combining sensory and choice experiments to evaluate the importance of animal welfare.
• Information regarding animal welfare affects hedonic liking and willingness to pay.
• Consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels.
• General, but not specific information on husbandry practices affects preferences.
Abstract: Although consumers show considerable interest in higher animal welfare, the market share for such products remains low. To provide consumers with a choice regarding different levels of animal welfare, animal welfare labels have been developed. Such product options are intended to serve as intermediate products between conventional products and more expensive organic options that are often associated with high animal welfare standards. This study aims to evaluate whether information about animal welfare practices affects consumers’ liking and willingness to pay (WTP) for a pork product. Using a within-subject design with three evaluation rounds (blind, expectation, and full information) we combine hedonic liking where subjects rate four different types of ham with a choice experiment. Hams differ in the animal husbandry conditions during the rearing and fattening process: conventional rearing, a specific treatment of mother sows, a general animal welfare label, and organic production. Results show an effect of information on consumers’ sensory evaluation of the different products, although products were evaluated to be similar in the blind condition. Consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels while the conventional option had the lowest liking scores. Results from the choice experiment concur with the hedonic rating. Estimates indicate that consumers are willing to pay more for ham bearing a general animal welfare or organic label in the expectation and full information condition. Consequently, information regarding animal welfare affects both consumers’ hedonic liking and WTP for ham.
Keywords: Animal welfarechoice experimentsensory evaluationwillingness to pay
Highlights
• Combining sensory and choice experiments to evaluate the importance of animal welfare.
• Information regarding animal welfare affects hedonic liking and willingness to pay.
• Consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels.
• General, but not specific information on husbandry practices affects preferences.
Abstract: Although consumers show considerable interest in higher animal welfare, the market share for such products remains low. To provide consumers with a choice regarding different levels of animal welfare, animal welfare labels have been developed. Such product options are intended to serve as intermediate products between conventional products and more expensive organic options that are often associated with high animal welfare standards. This study aims to evaluate whether information about animal welfare practices affects consumers’ liking and willingness to pay (WTP) for a pork product. Using a within-subject design with three evaluation rounds (blind, expectation, and full information) we combine hedonic liking where subjects rate four different types of ham with a choice experiment. Hams differ in the animal husbandry conditions during the rearing and fattening process: conventional rearing, a specific treatment of mother sows, a general animal welfare label, and organic production. Results show an effect of information on consumers’ sensory evaluation of the different products, although products were evaluated to be similar in the blind condition. Consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels while the conventional option had the lowest liking scores. Results from the choice experiment concur with the hedonic rating. Estimates indicate that consumers are willing to pay more for ham bearing a general animal welfare or organic label in the expectation and full information condition. Consequently, information regarding animal welfare affects both consumers’ hedonic liking and WTP for ham.
Keywords: Animal welfarechoice experimentsensory evaluationwillingness to pay
We investigated whether jurors assign more weight to evidence if obtained through technological means-and the impact of crime severity on juror decision-making (CSI Effect & Tech Effect)
Lodge, Chloe, and Mircea Zloteanu. 2020. “Jurors' Expectations and Decision-making: Revisiting the CSI Effect.” PsyArXiv. August 13. doi:10.31234/osf.io/jbwzc
Abstract: It has been argued that the rise in popularity of crime show dramas over the past few years has led to jurors holding unrealistic expectations regarding the type of evidence presented at trial. This has been coined the CSI effect. We investigated the CSI effect and the less well-known Tech effect-assigning more weight to evidence if obtained through technological means-and the impact of crime severity on juror decision-making. However, we argue that as time progresses, such effects will no longer be found to impact juror decision-making processes. We propose that past effects reported in the literature can be explained by considering a novelty bias. Using both frequentist and Bayesian frameworks, we tested this claim. Participants were primed with a newspaper that either contained a forensic, technology, or neutral article. They were then presented with two crime scenarios and asked to provide a verdict and a confidence rating. We find that mock jurors were unaffected by either the priming manipulation or crime severity, finding no evidence for either the CSI or Tech effects. The data suggest jurors are not as easily biased as has been previously argued in the literature, indicating a potential shift in public perceptions and expectations regarding evidence.
Abstract: It has been argued that the rise in popularity of crime show dramas over the past few years has led to jurors holding unrealistic expectations regarding the type of evidence presented at trial. This has been coined the CSI effect. We investigated the CSI effect and the less well-known Tech effect-assigning more weight to evidence if obtained through technological means-and the impact of crime severity on juror decision-making. However, we argue that as time progresses, such effects will no longer be found to impact juror decision-making processes. We propose that past effects reported in the literature can be explained by considering a novelty bias. Using both frequentist and Bayesian frameworks, we tested this claim. Participants were primed with a newspaper that either contained a forensic, technology, or neutral article. They were then presented with two crime scenarios and asked to provide a verdict and a confidence rating. We find that mock jurors were unaffected by either the priming manipulation or crime severity, finding no evidence for either the CSI or Tech effects. The data suggest jurors are not as easily biased as has been previously argued in the literature, indicating a potential shift in public perceptions and expectations regarding evidence.
The positive effect of expressed affection exceeded the effect of received affection
Affectionate communication and health: A meta-analysis. Colin Hesse et al. Communication Monographs, Aug 12 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2020.1805480
ABSTRACT: A robust literature documents the health benefits of affectionate communication. The present study offers a meta-analysis of this literature to estimate general effects of affectionate communication on several areas of health, including cardiovascular, stress hormonal, stress reactivity, and mental health. We also examined potential moderators, including the type of affectionate communication and sex, while predicting that the benefits of expressed affection outweigh the benefits of received affection. We found a weighted mean effect of r = .23 for the relationship between affectionate communication and health, with differences based on type of health outcome but none for type of affection or sex. The effect of expressed affection exceeded the effect of received affection. The paper discusses the implications of these results.
KEYWORDS: Affection, affectionate communication, health, wellness, meta-analysis, affection exchange theory
ABSTRACT: A robust literature documents the health benefits of affectionate communication. The present study offers a meta-analysis of this literature to estimate general effects of affectionate communication on several areas of health, including cardiovascular, stress hormonal, stress reactivity, and mental health. We also examined potential moderators, including the type of affectionate communication and sex, while predicting that the benefits of expressed affection outweigh the benefits of received affection. We found a weighted mean effect of r = .23 for the relationship between affectionate communication and health, with differences based on type of health outcome but none for type of affection or sex. The effect of expressed affection exceeded the effect of received affection. The paper discusses the implications of these results.
KEYWORDS: Affection, affectionate communication, health, wellness, meta-analysis, affection exchange theory
Thursday, August 13, 2020
Recent studies point to a “cynical” view of social perceivers who assume that even moderately moral people could engage in moderately immoral behaviors; this view seems to vary among cultures
Patrice Rusconi, Simona Sacchi, Marco Brambilla, Roberta Capellini, and Paolo Cherubini (2020). Being Honest and Acting Consistently: Boundary Conditions of the Negativity Effect in the Attribution of Morality. Social Cognition: Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 146-178. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2020.38.2.146
Abstract: Morality, which refers to characteristics such as trustworthiness and honesty, has a primary role in social perception and judgment. A negativity effect characterizes the morality dimension, whereby negative information is weighed more than positive information in trait attribution and impression formation. This article reviews the literature on the negativity effect in trait attribution and impression formation. We examine the main boundary conditions of the negativity effect by considering relevant moderators, such as behavior consistency and evaluative extremity, level of categorization, and measurement type as well as some theoretical and empirical inconsistencies in the literature. We also review recent studies showing that social perceivers hold negative assumptions about people's morality. We outline future directions for research on the negativity effect that should consider trait extremity, use alternative measures to the perceived frequency of behaviors, introduce more precise definitions of relevant constructs, such as diagnosticity, and test different schemata of trait-behavior relations.
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Culture and Historical Period.
Unlike previous models’ assumption that social perceivers hold moderately positive expectations about other people’s behaviors (Fiske, 1980; Helson, 1947, 1948; Jones & Davis, 1965; Sherif & Sherif, 1967), the recent studies by Meindl et al. (2016) and Rusconi et al. (2017) point to a “cynical” view of social perceivers who assume that even moderately moral people could engage in moderately immoral behaviors (e.g., Rusconi et al., 2017). A possible interpretation of this discrepancy is that the perceivers’ assumptions about other people’s morality vary across culture and time. A systematic analysis of the influence of cultural factors is needed as research in this area has been conducted in Western countries (e.g., Reeder et al., 1982; Rusconi et al., 2017; Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1992; Tausch et al., 2007). Rusconi et al. (2017) found the same pattern of results, although with a different magnitude, in an Italian and an American sample (Rusconi et al., 2017, Study 4). It is thus possible that more pronounced differences can be found when comparing Western as opposed to non-Western participants given the different consideration of situational information (e.g., Morris & Peng, 1994) as well as conceptualizations of morality (e.g., Shweder, Mahapatra, & Miller, 1987; Wojciszke, Bazinska, & Jaworski, 1998, footnote 2) across societies.
Abstract: Morality, which refers to characteristics such as trustworthiness and honesty, has a primary role in social perception and judgment. A negativity effect characterizes the morality dimension, whereby negative information is weighed more than positive information in trait attribution and impression formation. This article reviews the literature on the negativity effect in trait attribution and impression formation. We examine the main boundary conditions of the negativity effect by considering relevant moderators, such as behavior consistency and evaluative extremity, level of categorization, and measurement type as well as some theoretical and empirical inconsistencies in the literature. We also review recent studies showing that social perceivers hold negative assumptions about people's morality. We outline future directions for research on the negativity effect that should consider trait extremity, use alternative measures to the perceived frequency of behaviors, introduce more precise definitions of relevant constructs, such as diagnosticity, and test different schemata of trait-behavior relations.
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Culture and Historical Period.
Unlike previous models’ assumption that social perceivers hold moderately positive expectations about other people’s behaviors (Fiske, 1980; Helson, 1947, 1948; Jones & Davis, 1965; Sherif & Sherif, 1967), the recent studies by Meindl et al. (2016) and Rusconi et al. (2017) point to a “cynical” view of social perceivers who assume that even moderately moral people could engage in moderately immoral behaviors (e.g., Rusconi et al., 2017). A possible interpretation of this discrepancy is that the perceivers’ assumptions about other people’s morality vary across culture and time. A systematic analysis of the influence of cultural factors is needed as research in this area has been conducted in Western countries (e.g., Reeder et al., 1982; Rusconi et al., 2017; Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1992; Tausch et al., 2007). Rusconi et al. (2017) found the same pattern of results, although with a different magnitude, in an Italian and an American sample (Rusconi et al., 2017, Study 4). It is thus possible that more pronounced differences can be found when comparing Western as opposed to non-Western participants given the different consideration of situational information (e.g., Morris & Peng, 1994) as well as conceptualizations of morality (e.g., Shweder, Mahapatra, & Miller, 1987; Wojciszke, Bazinska, & Jaworski, 1998, footnote 2) across societies.
Wednesday, August 12, 2020
Older adults do not access less negatively emotional memories or describe the memories more positively, but they just evaluate these memories more positively than the young
The happiest and the saddest autobiographical memories and aging. Simay Ikier & Çağla Duman. Current Psychology (2020). Aug 12 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-020-00993-w
Abstract: The present study investigated autobiographical memories of younger, middle-aged and older adults for the events that made them the happiest and the saddest in their lives. Participants generated these memory types and provided ratings about how positive and how negative the memory makes them feel when they currently think about it, and the positivity of the emotional content of the memory. Participants provided the age at which the event happened and rated the importance and effectiveness of the event in who they have become presently, and their perceived control over the event. Results provided supporting evidence for the positivity effect, by showing that older adults felt more positive about their memories. Middle-aged adults’ ratings resembled older adults’ for the happiest and younger adults’ for the saddest memories. Two young independent raters rated all descriptions of older adults’ memories. Results showed that young raters’ positive emotion ratings were lower than older adults, for both the happiest and the saddest memories. This result indicated that older adults do not access less negatively emotional memories or describe the memories more positively, but they just evaluate these memories more positively. Results showed a reminiscence bump for the happiest but not for the saddest memories, supporting the predictions of the Life Script Account. Additionally, results provided partial and rather weak support for the Life Story Account in younger and middle-aged adults, but not in older adults. The results indicate that older adulthood may be characterized by a more positive evaluation of life experiences.
Abstract: The present study investigated autobiographical memories of younger, middle-aged and older adults for the events that made them the happiest and the saddest in their lives. Participants generated these memory types and provided ratings about how positive and how negative the memory makes them feel when they currently think about it, and the positivity of the emotional content of the memory. Participants provided the age at which the event happened and rated the importance and effectiveness of the event in who they have become presently, and their perceived control over the event. Results provided supporting evidence for the positivity effect, by showing that older adults felt more positive about their memories. Middle-aged adults’ ratings resembled older adults’ for the happiest and younger adults’ for the saddest memories. Two young independent raters rated all descriptions of older adults’ memories. Results showed that young raters’ positive emotion ratings were lower than older adults, for both the happiest and the saddest memories. This result indicated that older adults do not access less negatively emotional memories or describe the memories more positively, but they just evaluate these memories more positively. Results showed a reminiscence bump for the happiest but not for the saddest memories, supporting the predictions of the Life Script Account. Additionally, results provided partial and rather weak support for the Life Story Account in younger and middle-aged adults, but not in older adults. The results indicate that older adulthood may be characterized by a more positive evaluation of life experiences.
Participants indicated they would stand, sit or walk closer to the stranger when either of them was wearing a mask; this form of risk compensation was stronger for those who believed masks were effective
Luckman, Ashley, Hossam Zeitoun, Andrea Isoni, Graham Loomes, Ivo Vlaev, Nattavudh Powdthavee, and Daniel Read. 2020. “Risk Compensation During COVID-19: The Impact of Face Mask Usage on Social Distancing.” OSF Preprints. August 12. doi:10.31219/osf.io/rb8he.
Abstract: To reduce the spread of Covid-19, governments around the world recommended or required minimum physical distancing between individuals, as well as either mandating or recommending the use of face coverings (masks) in certain circumstances. When multiple risk reduction activities can be adopted, people may engage in risk compensation. They may respond to reduced risk due to one activity by increasing risk due to another. We tested for risk compensation related to mask usage during the Covid-19 pandemic in two online experiments that investigated whether either wearing a mask or seeing others wearing masks reduced physical distancing. We presented participants with stylized images of everyday scenarios involving themselves with or without a mask and a stranger with or without a mask. For each scenario, participants indicated the minimum distance they would keep from the stranger. Consistent with risk compensation, we found that participants indicated they would stand, sit or walk closer to the stranger when either of them was wearing a mask. This form of risk compensation was stronger for those who believed masks were effective at preventing catching or spreading Covid-19, and for younger (18-40 years) compared to older (over 65 years) participants.
Abstract: To reduce the spread of Covid-19, governments around the world recommended or required minimum physical distancing between individuals, as well as either mandating or recommending the use of face coverings (masks) in certain circumstances. When multiple risk reduction activities can be adopted, people may engage in risk compensation. They may respond to reduced risk due to one activity by increasing risk due to another. We tested for risk compensation related to mask usage during the Covid-19 pandemic in two online experiments that investigated whether either wearing a mask or seeing others wearing masks reduced physical distancing. We presented participants with stylized images of everyday scenarios involving themselves with or without a mask and a stranger with or without a mask. For each scenario, participants indicated the minimum distance they would keep from the stranger. Consistent with risk compensation, we found that participants indicated they would stand, sit or walk closer to the stranger when either of them was wearing a mask. This form of risk compensation was stronger for those who believed masks were effective at preventing catching or spreading Covid-19, and for younger (18-40 years) compared to older (over 65 years) participants.
There is little evidence for obesity-related differences in enhanced neural reactivity to visual food cues & that such differences might be mediated by additional factors that are often not considered
Is obesity related to enhanced neural reactivity to visual food cues? A review and meta-analysis. Filip Morys, Isabel García-García, Alain Dagher. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, nsaa113, August 12 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaa113
Abstract: Theoretical work suggests that obesity is related to enhanced incentive salience of food cues. However, evidence from both behavioral and neuroimaging studies on the topic is mixed. In this work we review the literature on cue reactivity in obesity and perform a preregistered meta-analysis of studies investigating effects of obesity on brain responses to passive food pictures viewing. Further, we examine whether age influences brain responses to food cues in obesity. In the meta-analysis we included 13 studies of children and adults that investigated group differences (obese vs. lean) in responses to food vs. non-food pictures viewing. While we found no significant differences in the overall meta-analysis, we show that age significantly influences brain response differences to food cues in the left insula and the left fusiform gyrus. In the left insula, obese vs. lean brain differences in response to food cues decreased with age, while in the left fusiform gyrus the pattern was opposite. Our results suggest that there is little evidence for obesity-related differences in responses to food cues and that such differences might be mediated by additional factors that are often not considered.
Keywords: Obesity, cue reactivity, food cues, meta-analysis, fMRI
Abstract: Theoretical work suggests that obesity is related to enhanced incentive salience of food cues. However, evidence from both behavioral and neuroimaging studies on the topic is mixed. In this work we review the literature on cue reactivity in obesity and perform a preregistered meta-analysis of studies investigating effects of obesity on brain responses to passive food pictures viewing. Further, we examine whether age influences brain responses to food cues in obesity. In the meta-analysis we included 13 studies of children and adults that investigated group differences (obese vs. lean) in responses to food vs. non-food pictures viewing. While we found no significant differences in the overall meta-analysis, we show that age significantly influences brain response differences to food cues in the left insula and the left fusiform gyrus. In the left insula, obese vs. lean brain differences in response to food cues decreased with age, while in the left fusiform gyrus the pattern was opposite. Our results suggest that there is little evidence for obesity-related differences in responses to food cues and that such differences might be mediated by additional factors that are often not considered.
Keywords: Obesity, cue reactivity, food cues, meta-analysis, fMRI
Despite Australia’s skills-based immigration policy, immigrants report worse labor market outcomes than in the US; skills-based imm. policy don't result in more selected immigrants, nor in better integration
The Integration Paradox: Asian Immigrants in Australia and the United States. Van C. Tran, Fei Guo, Tiffany J. Huang. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, August 4, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220926974
Abstract: Whereas Australia has pursued a skills-based migration policy, the United States has privileged family-based migration. The key contrast between these migration regimes provides a rare test of how national immigration policy shapes immigrant selection and integration. Does a skills-based immigration regime result in a more select group of Asian immigrants in Australia compared to their counterparts in the United States? Are Asian immigrants more integrated into their host society in Australia compared to the United States? Focusing on four groups of Asian immigrants in both countries (Chinese, Indians, Filipinos, and Vietnamese), this article addresses these questions using a transpacific comparison. Despite Australia’s skills-based immigration policy, we find that Asian immigrants in Australia are less hyper-selected than their counterparts in the United States. Asian immigrants in Australia also report worse labor market outcomes than those in the United States, with the exception of Vietnamese—a refugee group. Altogether, these findings challenge the conventional wisdom that skills-based immigration policy not only results in more selected immigrants, but also positively influences their integration into the host society.
Keywords: skills-based migration, family-based migration, Asian immigrants, transpacific comparison, hyper-selectivity, labor market integration
Abstract: Whereas Australia has pursued a skills-based migration policy, the United States has privileged family-based migration. The key contrast between these migration regimes provides a rare test of how national immigration policy shapes immigrant selection and integration. Does a skills-based immigration regime result in a more select group of Asian immigrants in Australia compared to their counterparts in the United States? Are Asian immigrants more integrated into their host society in Australia compared to the United States? Focusing on four groups of Asian immigrants in both countries (Chinese, Indians, Filipinos, and Vietnamese), this article addresses these questions using a transpacific comparison. Despite Australia’s skills-based immigration policy, we find that Asian immigrants in Australia are less hyper-selected than their counterparts in the United States. Asian immigrants in Australia also report worse labor market outcomes than those in the United States, with the exception of Vietnamese—a refugee group. Altogether, these findings challenge the conventional wisdom that skills-based immigration policy not only results in more selected immigrants, but also positively influences their integration into the host society.
Keywords: skills-based migration, family-based migration, Asian immigrants, transpacific comparison, hyper-selectivity, labor market integration
Myths and Misconceptions About Hypnosis and Suggestion: Separating Fact and Fiction
Myths and Misconceptions About Hypnosis and Suggestion: Separating Fact and Fiction. Steven Jay Lynn Irving Kirsch Devin B. Terhune Joseph P. Green. Applied Cognitive Psychology, August 11 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3730
Summary: We present 21 prominent myths and misconceptions about hypnosis in order to promulgate accurate information and to highlight questions for future research. We argue that these myths and misconceptions have (a) fostered a skewed and stereotyped view of hypnosis among the lay public, (b) discouraged participant involvement in potentially helpful hypnotic interventions, and (c) impeded the exploration and application of hypnosis in scientific and practitioner communities. Myths reviewed span the view that hypnosis produces a trance or special state of consciousness and allied myths on topics related to hypnotic interventions; hypnotic responsiveness and the modification of hypnotic suggestibility; inducing hypnosis; and hypnosis and memory, awareness, and the experience of nonvolition. By demarcating myth from mystery and fact from fiction, and by highlighting what is known as well as what remains to be discovered, the science and practice of hypnosis can be advanced and grounded on a firmer empirical footing.
15. Hypnosis produces a sleep-like state
16. Hypnosis is like mindfulness
17. There are reliable markers of a hypnotic state
18. The perception of involuntariness during hypnosis is the product of a trance
19. People cannot resist or oppose hypnotic suggestions
20. Hypnosis is a reliable method to improve recent memories
Simons and Chabris (2011) reported that as many as 55.4% of the U.S. general public agreed that “Hypnosis is useful in helping witnesses accurately recall details of crimes.” However, although hypnosis can produce increases in accurate memories, increases in inaccurate memories (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Milling (2002). Courts in 27 states in the U.S. have barred admitting testimony based on concerns about false memories and unwarranted confidence in such memories (see Lynn, Boycheva, Deming, & Hallquist, 2009). For example, in 23 studies Lynn et al. (2009) reviewed, hypnotized individuals either expressed greater confidence in recollections during or after hypnosis compared with individuals who were not hypnotized, or hypnotized individuals expressed confidence in inaccurate memories regarding events they had previously denied (see Lynn et al., 2009). In an additional nine studies, participants in hypnotic and nonhypnotic conditions were equally confident in their recollections. However, in five of the studies, hypnosis engendered more errors or less accurate information on some or all measures, and in all but one of the remaining studies, there were no differences in hypnotic vs. nonhypnotic memory accuracy. The role of misleading questions in hypnotic versus nonhypnotic recall and the extent to which hypnosis impacts "don't know" responses and unanswerable questions remain unclear (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Milling, 2002; Scoboria et al., 2006; Scoboria, Mazzoni, & Kirsch, 2008). In sum, hypnosis is not a reliable recall enhancement tool (Mazzoni, Heap, & Scoboria, 2010).
21. Hypnotic age regression can retrieve accurate memories from the distant past
Summary: We present 21 prominent myths and misconceptions about hypnosis in order to promulgate accurate information and to highlight questions for future research. We argue that these myths and misconceptions have (a) fostered a skewed and stereotyped view of hypnosis among the lay public, (b) discouraged participant involvement in potentially helpful hypnotic interventions, and (c) impeded the exploration and application of hypnosis in scientific and practitioner communities. Myths reviewed span the view that hypnosis produces a trance or special state of consciousness and allied myths on topics related to hypnotic interventions; hypnotic responsiveness and the modification of hypnotic suggestibility; inducing hypnosis; and hypnosis and memory, awareness, and the experience of nonvolition. By demarcating myth from mystery and fact from fiction, and by highlighting what is known as well as what remains to be discovered, the science and practice of hypnosis can be advanced and grounded on a firmer empirical footing.
15. Hypnosis produces a sleep-like state
16. Hypnosis is like mindfulness
17. There are reliable markers of a hypnotic state
18. The perception of involuntariness during hypnosis is the product of a trance
19. People cannot resist or oppose hypnotic suggestions
20. Hypnosis is a reliable method to improve recent memories
Simons and Chabris (2011) reported that as many as 55.4% of the U.S. general public agreed that “Hypnosis is useful in helping witnesses accurately recall details of crimes.” However, although hypnosis can produce increases in accurate memories, increases in inaccurate memories (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Milling (2002). Courts in 27 states in the U.S. have barred admitting testimony based on concerns about false memories and unwarranted confidence in such memories (see Lynn, Boycheva, Deming, & Hallquist, 2009). For example, in 23 studies Lynn et al. (2009) reviewed, hypnotized individuals either expressed greater confidence in recollections during or after hypnosis compared with individuals who were not hypnotized, or hypnotized individuals expressed confidence in inaccurate memories regarding events they had previously denied (see Lynn et al., 2009). In an additional nine studies, participants in hypnotic and nonhypnotic conditions were equally confident in their recollections. However, in five of the studies, hypnosis engendered more errors or less accurate information on some or all measures, and in all but one of the remaining studies, there were no differences in hypnotic vs. nonhypnotic memory accuracy. The role of misleading questions in hypnotic versus nonhypnotic recall and the extent to which hypnosis impacts "don't know" responses and unanswerable questions remain unclear (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Milling, 2002; Scoboria et al., 2006; Scoboria, Mazzoni, & Kirsch, 2008). In sum, hypnosis is not a reliable recall enhancement tool (Mazzoni, Heap, & Scoboria, 2010).
21. Hypnotic age regression can retrieve accurate memories from the distant past
As hypothesized, individuals’ levels of basal testosterone were positively related to susceptibility to minority influence; in contrast, susceptibility to majority influence was unaffected by basal testosterone
Basal Testosterone Renders Individuals More Receptive to Minority Positions. Markus Germar, Andreas Mojzisch. Social Psychological and Personality Science, August 11, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620945116
Abstract: Social influence is an inevitable part of human social interaction. Although past research has demonstrated that testosterone has a key role in social interaction, no study has examined its role in social influence so far. Building on previous research showing that minority positions are perceived as risky options and that testosterone is positively associated with status seeking and risk-taking, we hypothesized that basal testosterone renders individuals more receptive to minority positions. In two studies, participants (total N = 250) read messages that were supported by either a numerical majority or minority. As hypothesized, individuals’ levels of basal testosterone were positively related to susceptibility to minority influence. In contrast, susceptibility to majority influence was unaffected by basal testosterone. Given the importance of minorities for innovation and change within societies, our results suggest that individuals with high levels of testosterone may play an important role as catalysts of social change.
Keywords: social influence, minority, majority, basal testosterone, social change
https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620945116
Abstract: Social influence is an inevitable part of human social interaction. Although past research has demonstrated that testosterone has a key role in social interaction, no study has examined its role in social influence so far. Building on previous research showing that minority positions are perceived as risky options and that testosterone is positively associated with status seeking and risk-taking, we hypothesized that basal testosterone renders individuals more receptive to minority positions. In two studies, participants (total N = 250) read messages that were supported by either a numerical majority or minority. As hypothesized, individuals’ levels of basal testosterone were positively related to susceptibility to minority influence. In contrast, susceptibility to majority influence was unaffected by basal testosterone. Given the importance of minorities for innovation and change within societies, our results suggest that individuals with high levels of testosterone may play an important role as catalysts of social change.
Keywords: social influence, minority, majority, basal testosterone, social change
Tuesday, August 11, 2020
Friendship jealousy is sensitive to the value of the threatened friendship, strongly calibrated to cues that one is being replaced, & ultimately motivates behavior aimed at countering third-party threats to friendship (“friend guarding”)
Krems, J. A., Williams, K. E. G., Aktipis, A., & Kenrick, D. T. (2020). Friendship jealousy: One tool for maintaining friendships in the face of third-party threats? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Aug 11 2020. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000311
Abstract: Friendships can foster happiness, health, and reproductive fitness. However, friendships end—even when we might not want them to. A primary reason for this is interference from third parties. Yet, little work has explored how people meet the challenge of maintaining friendships in the face of real or perceived threats from third parties, as when our friends inevitably make new friends or form new romantic relationships. In contrast to earlier conceptualizations from developmental research, which viewed friendship jealousy as solely maladaptive, we propose that friendship jealousy is one overlooked tool of friendship maintenance. We derive and test—via a series of 11 studies (N = 2,918) using hypothetical scenarios, recalled real-world events, and manipulation of online emotional experiences—whether friendship jealousy possesses the features of a tool well-designed to help us retain friends in the face of third-party threats. Consistent with our proposition, findings suggest that friendship jealousy is (a) uniquely evoked by third-party threats to friendships (but not the prospective loss of the friendship alone), (b) sensitive to the value of the threatened friendship, (c) strongly calibrated to cues that one is being replaced, even over more intuitive cues (e.g., the amount of time a friend and interloper spend together), and (d) ultimately motivates behavior aimed at countering third-party threats to friendship (“friend guarding”). Even as friendship jealousy may be negative to experience, it may include features designed for beneficial—and arguably prosocial—ends: to help maintain friendships.
Abstract: Friendships can foster happiness, health, and reproductive fitness. However, friendships end—even when we might not want them to. A primary reason for this is interference from third parties. Yet, little work has explored how people meet the challenge of maintaining friendships in the face of real or perceived threats from third parties, as when our friends inevitably make new friends or form new romantic relationships. In contrast to earlier conceptualizations from developmental research, which viewed friendship jealousy as solely maladaptive, we propose that friendship jealousy is one overlooked tool of friendship maintenance. We derive and test—via a series of 11 studies (N = 2,918) using hypothetical scenarios, recalled real-world events, and manipulation of online emotional experiences—whether friendship jealousy possesses the features of a tool well-designed to help us retain friends in the face of third-party threats. Consistent with our proposition, findings suggest that friendship jealousy is (a) uniquely evoked by third-party threats to friendships (but not the prospective loss of the friendship alone), (b) sensitive to the value of the threatened friendship, (c) strongly calibrated to cues that one is being replaced, even over more intuitive cues (e.g., the amount of time a friend and interloper spend together), and (d) ultimately motivates behavior aimed at countering third-party threats to friendship (“friend guarding”). Even as friendship jealousy may be negative to experience, it may include features designed for beneficial—and arguably prosocial—ends: to help maintain friendships.
Out-of-partnership births in East and West Germany: Single women in East Germany are significantly more likely to give birth to a child than single women in West Germany, partly predating 1945
Out-of-partnership births in East and West Germany. Uwe Jirjahn & Cornelia Chadi. Review of Economics of the Household volume 18, pages853–881(2020). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11150-019-09463-0
Abstract: Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), we show that single women in East Germany are significantly more likely to give birth to a child than single women in West Germany. This applies to both planned and unplanned births. Our analysis provides no evidence that the difference between East and West Germany can be explained by economic factors or the higher availability of child care in East Germany. This suggests that the difference in out-of-partnership births is rather driven by behavioral and cultural differences. However, these behavioral and cultural differences do not only reflect different gender role models that evolved under the former communist regime in East Germany and the democratic one in West Germany. Partly, they also reflect a long historical divide that predates the 1945 separation of Germany.
Abstract: Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), we show that single women in East Germany are significantly more likely to give birth to a child than single women in West Germany. This applies to both planned and unplanned births. Our analysis provides no evidence that the difference between East and West Germany can be explained by economic factors or the higher availability of child care in East Germany. This suggests that the difference in out-of-partnership births is rather driven by behavioral and cultural differences. However, these behavioral and cultural differences do not only reflect different gender role models that evolved under the former communist regime in East Germany and the democratic one in West Germany. Partly, they also reflect a long historical divide that predates the 1945 separation of Germany.
Notes
- 1.A further reason for building up the comprehensive child care system was that the communist regime tried to control the socialization and education of its citizens from the very start of their lives.
- 2.Giavazzi et al. (2019) show that a process of cultural transmission can indeed take a long time. They examine the speed of evolution of a series of cultural attitudes for different generations of European immigrants to the US. Specifically, they identify family and moral values, general political views, and religious values as being relatively persistent.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.Note that the data provide no information whether women younger than 18 years gave birth to a child.
- 6.While the estimated coefficient on East Germany is slightly smaller in regression (2) than in regression (1), the marginal effect is higher. The nonlinearity of the probit model implies that the marginal effect of a variable not only depends on the coefficient of that variable, but also on the other explanatory variables included in the regression.
- 7.A potential limitation of our dependent variable is that the share of women with a planned out-of-partnership birth is low. This might result in greater randomness and, hence, in insignificant coefficients of the variables for child care availability and risk attitude in the equation for planned births. However, these variables even take negative coefficients in that equation indicating that they may indeed have no positive influence on planned births.
- 8.At the same time, more equal gender roles imply that cohabitation is more prevalent among East than among West Germans (Jirjahn and Struewing 2018). More emancipated women who are less dependent on a partner may be less inclined to safeguard a relationship through marriage. Moreover, as stressed by sociologists, cohabitation involves a greater lack of normative prescriptions for role performance (Baxter 2001). This leaves more space for cohabiting couples to negotiate more egalitarian relationships.
- 9.We only provide coefficients as STATA has no canned command to calculate marginal effects for Firth’s model.
- 10.
- 11.
Religious individuals assert superior, but false, knowledge on domains highly relevant to religiosity (e.g., international health charities, humanitarian aid organizations)
Do Religious People Self-Enhance? Constantine Sedikides, Jochen E Gebauer. Current Opinion in Psychology, August 10 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.002
We ask if and when religious individuals self-enhance more than non-believers. First, religious individuals self-enhance on domains central to their self-concept. Specifically, they exhibit the Better-Than-Average Effect: They rate themselves as superior on attributes painting them as good Christians (e.g., traits like “loving” or “forgiving,” Biblical commandments) than on control attributes. Likewise, they exhibit the Overclaiming Effect: They assert superior, but false, knowledge on domains highly relevant to religiosity (e.g., international health charities, humanitarian aid organizations) than on control domains. Second, religious individuals self-enhance strongly in religious (than secular) cultures, which elevate religion to a social value. Finally, Christians may self-enhance in general, perhaps due to their conviction that they have a special relationship with God.
We ask if and when religious individuals self-enhance more than non-believers. First, religious individuals self-enhance on domains central to their self-concept. Specifically, they exhibit the Better-Than-Average Effect: They rate themselves as superior on attributes painting them as good Christians (e.g., traits like “loving” or “forgiving,” Biblical commandments) than on control attributes. Likewise, they exhibit the Overclaiming Effect: They assert superior, but false, knowledge on domains highly relevant to religiosity (e.g., international health charities, humanitarian aid organizations) than on control domains. Second, religious individuals self-enhance strongly in religious (than secular) cultures, which elevate religion to a social value. Finally, Christians may self-enhance in general, perhaps due to their conviction that they have a special relationship with God.
Monday, August 10, 2020
People are somewhat conflicted in their evaluations of those smarter than they are whereas similarly and less intelligent people presented less of an apparent conflict in evaluations (which was unfavorable)
The potentially conflicted evaluations of others based on their intelligence. Peter K. Jonason, Jamie Hughes. Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 168, 1 January 2021, 110299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110299
Highlights
• Manipulated intelligence of targets relative to participants.
• Measured likability in favorable and unfavorable evaluations.
• Generally, more favorable evaluations than unfavorable ones.
• More conflicted (favorable ≈ unfavorable) likeability for smarter targets.
• Less intelligent people were rated least favorably.
Abstract: Individual differences in intelligence are apparent and likely to come with important interpersonal consequences. We examined (N = 476) how (manipulated) individual differences in intelligence affect likability ratings of men and women. We found that (1) ratings were generally more favorable than unfavorable, (2) the difference between favorable and unfavorable ratings of the female target differed more than those same evaluations of the male target, (3) the favorable evaluation tendency was present across relative intelligence but weakest when the target was smarter than the participant, (4) the smarter target was rated more unfavorably, and (5) the equally smart target was rated more favorably than the less intelligent target. Results suggest that people are somewhat conflicted in their evaluations of those smarter than they are whereas similarly and less intelligent people presented less of an apparent conflict in evaluations.
Keywords: IntelligencePerson-perceptionSocial comparisonSex differencesSex roles
Highlights
• Manipulated intelligence of targets relative to participants.
• Measured likability in favorable and unfavorable evaluations.
• Generally, more favorable evaluations than unfavorable ones.
• More conflicted (favorable ≈ unfavorable) likeability for smarter targets.
• Less intelligent people were rated least favorably.
Abstract: Individual differences in intelligence are apparent and likely to come with important interpersonal consequences. We examined (N = 476) how (manipulated) individual differences in intelligence affect likability ratings of men and women. We found that (1) ratings were generally more favorable than unfavorable, (2) the difference between favorable and unfavorable ratings of the female target differed more than those same evaluations of the male target, (3) the favorable evaluation tendency was present across relative intelligence but weakest when the target was smarter than the participant, (4) the smarter target was rated more unfavorably, and (5) the equally smart target was rated more favorably than the less intelligent target. Results suggest that people are somewhat conflicted in their evaluations of those smarter than they are whereas similarly and less intelligent people presented less of an apparent conflict in evaluations.
Keywords: IntelligencePerson-perceptionSocial comparisonSex differencesSex roles
4. Discussion
Never have the consequences of individual differences in intelligence been more noticeable. Smarter people are more likely to get hired, make better decisions in relation to dangers (e.g., COVID-19; Williams, 2020), and gain admission to top-tier universities. But these functional benefits stand aside interpersonal benefits. For men being more intelligent can lead to better success at attracting sexual and romantic partners (Jonason et al., 2019; Jonason & Antoon, 2019; Prokosch et al., 2009) and men with less intelligence are judged harshly as counselors (Abramowitz & O'Grady, 1991). In contrast, women who are intelligent may suffer from unfavorable evaluations because they are in violation of traditional sex roles and that such women may threaten people's traditional ideas of what it means to be a woman (Eckes, 2002). This “backlash” can be seen in how the female target who was smarter received less favorable reactions than equally or less intelligent targets. Indeed, being perceived as less intelligent might actually be an asset to women (Abramowitz & O'Grady, 1991). However, these evaluations rarely considered the possibility that favorable and unfavorable evaluations might co-occur and, therefore, present a new view of how people evaluate others who differ in intelligence.
The most striking pattern (see Fig. 1) was that the target with more intelligence had more conflicted evaluations than the target who was less or similarly intelligent. By that we mean the difference between favorably and unfavorable evaluations was weakest in the former than the latter two. Smart men and women (no sex differences or moderation of this effect were detected) may have features that people like (e.g., resourcefulness, income) but simultaneously may have features that people do not like (e.g., arrogance, argumentativeness). This creates a conflicted wholistic evaluation in others which may create an approach-avoidance conflict towards smarter people in interpersonal or professional contexts. Indeed, these are just the kinds of people that may need to compensate for these negative expectations with humility, charm, and generosity. Alternatively, those with similar and less intelligence may not pose the kinds of intellectual and ego threats that smart people create in others leading to conflicted sentiments and less approach-avoidance conflicts.
We have provided a unique glimpse into the role of individual differences in likeability as a function of relative intelligence in men and women. Despite this, our study was limited by its reliance on a W.E.I.R.D. sample of MTurk workers, using a context-free, ultra-brief manipulation of relative intelligence, and a failure to examine potential mechanisms for these effects like personality (Schmitt et al., 2008), sex roles (Bem, 1974), or sexism (Glick & Fiske, 1997). Despite these shortcomings, we have provided insights into how people judge others based on intelligence. We failed to find evidence consistent with stereotype content theory (Eckes, 2002), and, instead, found that greater insights into how people are evaluated may come from a simultaneous examination of favorable and unfavorable axes.
Sexual minority men showed statistically higher levels of body dissatisfaction than heterosexual men, with no difference among gay & bisexual men; sexual minority & heterosexual women had no difference in body dissatisfaction
Body dissatisfaction and sexual orientations: A quantitative synthesis of 30 years research findings. Jinbo He et al. Clinical Psychology Review, August 11 2020, 101896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101896
Highlights
• Sexual minority men showed statistically higher levels of body dissatisfaction than heterosexual men.
• Gay men and bisexual men had no difference in body dissatisfaction.
• Sexual minority women and heterosexual women had no difference in body dissatisfaction.
• Lesbian women and bisexual women had no difference in body dissatisfaction.
• Inconsistency of the studies comparing sexual minority men and heterosexual men was moderated by multiple study features.
• Inconsistency of the studies comparing sexual minority women and heterosexual women was moderated only by survey method.
Abstract: Previous research studies on the relationship between body dissatisfaction and sexual orientation in men and women showed inconsistent results. To better understand this body of research, we conducted a quantitative synthesis based on a three-level random-effects meta-analytic model. In total, we analyzed 229 effect sizes from 75 primary studies published between 1986 and 2019. Results showed that sexual minority men had a higher level of body dissatisfaction than heterosexual men (57 studies, 128 effect sizes), with a small to medium effect size (d = 0.34; 95% CI: 0.28, 0.39). Other comparisons—bisexual men vs. gay men (6 studies, 9 effect sizes), sexual minority women vs. heterosexual women (36 studies, 85 effect sizes), and bisexual women vs. lesbian women (6 studies, 7 effect sizes)—showed smaller and statistically insignificant differences. Moderator analyses revealed that the inconsistency in previous studies comparing sexual minority men and heterosexual men could be partially explained by specific study features, including publication year, survey method, participants' age, participants' BMI, and measures used to assess body dissatisfaction. The inconsistent findings in comparing sexual minority women and heterosexual women could be partially explained by the different survey methods used in previous studies. Explanations and implications are discussed.
Keywords: Body imageBody dissatisfactionBody satisfactionSexual orientationLesbianGayBisexualMeta-analysisQuantitative synthesis
Highlights
• Sexual minority men showed statistically higher levels of body dissatisfaction than heterosexual men.
• Gay men and bisexual men had no difference in body dissatisfaction.
• Sexual minority women and heterosexual women had no difference in body dissatisfaction.
• Lesbian women and bisexual women had no difference in body dissatisfaction.
• Inconsistency of the studies comparing sexual minority men and heterosexual men was moderated by multiple study features.
• Inconsistency of the studies comparing sexual minority women and heterosexual women was moderated only by survey method.
Abstract: Previous research studies on the relationship between body dissatisfaction and sexual orientation in men and women showed inconsistent results. To better understand this body of research, we conducted a quantitative synthesis based on a three-level random-effects meta-analytic model. In total, we analyzed 229 effect sizes from 75 primary studies published between 1986 and 2019. Results showed that sexual minority men had a higher level of body dissatisfaction than heterosexual men (57 studies, 128 effect sizes), with a small to medium effect size (d = 0.34; 95% CI: 0.28, 0.39). Other comparisons—bisexual men vs. gay men (6 studies, 9 effect sizes), sexual minority women vs. heterosexual women (36 studies, 85 effect sizes), and bisexual women vs. lesbian women (6 studies, 7 effect sizes)—showed smaller and statistically insignificant differences. Moderator analyses revealed that the inconsistency in previous studies comparing sexual minority men and heterosexual men could be partially explained by specific study features, including publication year, survey method, participants' age, participants' BMI, and measures used to assess body dissatisfaction. The inconsistent findings in comparing sexual minority women and heterosexual women could be partially explained by the different survey methods used in previous studies. Explanations and implications are discussed.
Keywords: Body imageBody dissatisfactionBody satisfactionSexual orientationLesbianGayBisexualMeta-analysisQuantitative synthesis
Physical characteristics of politicians such as their obesity can be used as proxy variables for political corruption when the latter are not available, for instance at a very local level
Obesity of politicians and corruption in post‐Soviet countries. Pavlo Blavatskyy. Economics of Transition and Institutional Change, July 18 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecot.12259
Abstract: We collected 299 frontal face images of 2017 cabinet ministers from 15 post‐Soviet states (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan). For each image, the minister's body‐mass index is estimated using a computer vision algorithm. The median estimated body‐mass index of cabinet ministers is highly correlated with conventional measures of corruption (Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index, World Bank worldwide governance indicator Control of Corruption, Index of Public Integrity). This result suggests that physical characteristics of politicians such as their body‐mass index can be used as proxy variables for political corruption when the latter are not available, for instance at a very local level.
Abstract: We collected 299 frontal face images of 2017 cabinet ministers from 15 post‐Soviet states (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan). For each image, the minister's body‐mass index is estimated using a computer vision algorithm. The median estimated body‐mass index of cabinet ministers is highly correlated with conventional measures of corruption (Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index, World Bank worldwide governance indicator Control of Corruption, Index of Public Integrity). This result suggests that physical characteristics of politicians such as their body‐mass index can be used as proxy variables for political corruption when the latter are not available, for instance at a very local level.
The presence of African American soldiers in the U.K. during World War II reduced anti-minority prejudice, a result of the positive interactions which took place between soldiers and the local population
Shocking Racial Attitudes: Black G.I.s in Europe. David Schindler, Mark Westcott. The Review of Economic Studies, rdaa039, August 3 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdaa039
Abstract: Can attitudes towards minorities, an important cultural trait, be changed? We show that the presence of African American soldiers in the U.K. during World War II reduced anti-minority prejudice, a result of the positive interactions which took place between soldiers and the local population. The change has been persistent: in locations in which more African American soldiers were posted there are fewer members of and voters for the U.K.’s leading far-right party, less implicit bias against blacks and fewer individuals professing racial prejudice, all measured around 2010. Our results point towards intergenerational transmission from parents to children as the most likely explanation.
Abstract: Can attitudes towards minorities, an important cultural trait, be changed? We show that the presence of African American soldiers in the U.K. during World War II reduced anti-minority prejudice, a result of the positive interactions which took place between soldiers and the local population. The change has been persistent: in locations in which more African American soldiers were posted there are fewer members of and voters for the U.K.’s leading far-right party, less implicit bias against blacks and fewer individuals professing racial prejudice, all measured around 2010. Our results point towards intergenerational transmission from parents to children as the most likely explanation.
In two studies we tested the hypothesis that observers can accurately distinguish between convicted criminals and matched controls, merely by scrutinizing facial photographs
The face of crime: Apparent happiness differentiates criminal and non-criminal photos. Kennon M. Sheldon, Mike Corcoran & Jason Trent. The Journal of Positive Psychology, Aug 10 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1805500
ABSTRACT: In two studies we tested the hypothesis that observers can accurately distinguish between convicted criminals and matched controls, merely by scrutinizing facial photographs. Based on the Eudaimonic Activity Model, we further hypothesized that criminals and non-criminals differ in their apparent emotional positivity. Finally, based on honest signaling theory, we hypothesized that such emotionality differences can explain observers’ ability to distinguish criminals and non-criminals. In Study 1 participants evaluated photos of people later convicted of crimes, and photos of matched controls. In Study 2 participants evaluated photos of Catholic priests later convicted of sexual offenses, and photos of the priests who replaced them at their parishes. All three hypotheses were supported. Furthermore, in Study 2, participants’ own facial photos were rated by assistants. Consistent with honest signal theories, observer’s facial positivity, as well as their self-rated positive affect, predicted their ability to perceive positive emotions in non-criminal faces.
KEYWORDS: Happiness, eudaimonia, honest signaling theory, criminality, eudaimonic activity model, facial perceptions
ABSTRACT: In two studies we tested the hypothesis that observers can accurately distinguish between convicted criminals and matched controls, merely by scrutinizing facial photographs. Based on the Eudaimonic Activity Model, we further hypothesized that criminals and non-criminals differ in their apparent emotional positivity. Finally, based on honest signaling theory, we hypothesized that such emotionality differences can explain observers’ ability to distinguish criminals and non-criminals. In Study 1 participants evaluated photos of people later convicted of crimes, and photos of matched controls. In Study 2 participants evaluated photos of Catholic priests later convicted of sexual offenses, and photos of the priests who replaced them at their parishes. All three hypotheses were supported. Furthermore, in Study 2, participants’ own facial photos were rated by assistants. Consistent with honest signal theories, observer’s facial positivity, as well as their self-rated positive affect, predicted their ability to perceive positive emotions in non-criminal faces.
KEYWORDS: Happiness, eudaimonia, honest signaling theory, criminality, eudaimonic activity model, facial perceptions
On Aristotelian virtue, human flourishing, human sexuality & animal instinct, innocence, erotic neutralization & the view that sex is an exceptional aspect of morality
Childhood ‘Innocence’ is Not Ideal: Virtue Ethics and Child–Adult Sex. Thomas O’Carroll. Sexuality & Culture volume 22, pages1230–1262(2018). Apr 2018. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12119-018-9519-1
Abstract: Malón (Arch Sexual Behav 44(4):1071–1083, 2015) concluded that the usual arguments against sexual relationships between adults and prepubertal children are inadequate to rule out the moral permissibility of such behaviour in all circumstances. Malón (Sex Cult 21(1):247–269, 2017) applied virtue ethics in an attempt to remedy the postulated deficiency. The present paper challenges the virtue ethics approach taken in the second of Malón’s articles by: (1) contesting the view that sex is an exceptional aspect of morality, to which a virtue approach needs to be applied; (2) contesting the view that virtue ethics succeed, where other arguments fail, against the moral admissibility of child–adult sexual relations; (3) proposing that such relations can be seen as virtuous in the context of an alternative view of what constitutes virtue.
Check also Malón, A. (2017). Adult–child sex and the demands of virtuous sexual morality. Sexuality and Culture, 21(1), 247–269. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12119-016-9392-8
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Why should the sexual dimension, by contrast, remain a closed book in terms either of open-minded theoretical discussion or, even more vitally, at the level of fact-gathering, hypothesis-forming and testing? Unfortunately, these are happening very little, especially as regards the production of quantified scientific research; on a very small scale, though, there have been richly descriptive qualitative studies of an exploratory kind, plus exhortation to study what is normal beyond the usual WEIRD baseline (Blaise 2013; Leahy 1991, 1992; Narvaez 2016; Sandfort 1984, 1987).
Abstract: Malón (Arch Sexual Behav 44(4):1071–1083, 2015) concluded that the usual arguments against sexual relationships between adults and prepubertal children are inadequate to rule out the moral permissibility of such behaviour in all circumstances. Malón (Sex Cult 21(1):247–269, 2017) applied virtue ethics in an attempt to remedy the postulated deficiency. The present paper challenges the virtue ethics approach taken in the second of Malón’s articles by: (1) contesting the view that sex is an exceptional aspect of morality, to which a virtue approach needs to be applied; (2) contesting the view that virtue ethics succeed, where other arguments fail, against the moral admissibility of child–adult sexual relations; (3) proposing that such relations can be seen as virtuous in the context of an alternative view of what constitutes virtue.
Check also Malón, A. (2017). Adult–child sex and the demands of virtuous sexual morality. Sexuality and Culture, 21(1), 247–269. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12119-016-9392-8
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Why should the sexual dimension, by contrast, remain a closed book in terms either of open-minded theoretical discussion or, even more vitally, at the level of fact-gathering, hypothesis-forming and testing? Unfortunately, these are happening very little, especially as regards the production of quantified scientific research; on a very small scale, though, there have been richly descriptive qualitative studies of an exploratory kind, plus exhortation to study what is normal beyond the usual WEIRD baseline (Blaise 2013; Leahy 1991, 1992; Narvaez 2016; Sandfort 1984, 1987).
Three different strategies used by people to place themselves within an ideologically homogeneous information environment: selective approach, selective avoidance, & the belief in the importance of silencing others
From 2019... Personality Factors Differentiating Selective Approach, Selective Avoidance, and the Belief in the Importance of Silencing Others: Further Evidence for Discriminant Validity. Yariv Tsfati. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, edz031, October 8 2019. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edz031
Abstract: Recent research proposed self-report measures tapping three different strategies used by people to place themselves within an ideologically homogeneous information environment: selective approach, selective avoidance, and the belief in the importance of silencing others (BISO). Using online survey data collected in Israel (n = 749), the present investigation explores the discriminant validity of these constructs. Confirmatory factor model comparisons support their empirical differentiation. In addition, it is argued that the constructs are empirically different given the fact that they correlate differently with personality factors. BISO is more strongly and positively associated with authoritarianism. Selective avoidance is more strongly negatively associated with openness to experience. Selective approach was positively associated with empathy, with which selective avoidance was negatively associated.
Abstract: Recent research proposed self-report measures tapping three different strategies used by people to place themselves within an ideologically homogeneous information environment: selective approach, selective avoidance, and the belief in the importance of silencing others (BISO). Using online survey data collected in Israel (n = 749), the present investigation explores the discriminant validity of these constructs. Confirmatory factor model comparisons support their empirical differentiation. In addition, it is argued that the constructs are empirically different given the fact that they correlate differently with personality factors. BISO is more strongly and positively associated with authoritarianism. Selective avoidance is more strongly negatively associated with openness to experience. Selective approach was positively associated with empathy, with which selective avoidance was negatively associated.
Sunday, August 9, 2020
Evidence of a tendency to perceive bodies in static poses as more feminine and bodies in dynamic poses as more masculine; & male bodies were judged more dynamic than female bodies with the same pose
Motion and Gender-Typing Features Interact in the Perception of Human Bodies. Giulia D’Argenio, Alessandra Finisguerra and Cosimo Urgesi. Front. Neurosci., April 21 2020. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.00277
Abstract: The human body conveys socially relevant information, including a person’s gender. Several studies have shown that both shape and motion inform gender judgments of bodies. However, while body shape seems to influence more the judgment of female bodies, body motion seems to play a major role in the judgments of male bodies. Yet, the interdependence of morphologic and dynamic cues in shaping gender judgment and attractiveness evaluation in body perception is still unclear. In two experiments, we investigated how variations of implied motion and shape interact in perceptual and affective judgments of female and male bodies. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to provide ratings for masculinity and femininity of virtual renderings of human bodies with variable gender-typing features and implied motion. We found evidence of a tendency to perceive bodies in static poses as more feminine and bodies in dynamic poses as more masculine. In Experiment 2, participants rated the same pictures for dynamism and pleasantness. We found that male bodies were judged more dynamic than female bodies with the same pose. Also, female bodies were liked more in static than in dynamic poses. A mediation analysis allowed us to further shed light on the relationship between gender-typing features and motion, suggesting that the less is the movement conveyed by a female body, the greater is an observer’s sensitivity to its femininity, and this leads to a more positive evaluation of its pleasantness. Our findings hint to an association between stillness and femininity in body perception, which can stem from either the evolutionary meaning of sexual selection and/or the influence of cultural norms.
Abstract: The human body conveys socially relevant information, including a person’s gender. Several studies have shown that both shape and motion inform gender judgments of bodies. However, while body shape seems to influence more the judgment of female bodies, body motion seems to play a major role in the judgments of male bodies. Yet, the interdependence of morphologic and dynamic cues in shaping gender judgment and attractiveness evaluation in body perception is still unclear. In two experiments, we investigated how variations of implied motion and shape interact in perceptual and affective judgments of female and male bodies. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to provide ratings for masculinity and femininity of virtual renderings of human bodies with variable gender-typing features and implied motion. We found evidence of a tendency to perceive bodies in static poses as more feminine and bodies in dynamic poses as more masculine. In Experiment 2, participants rated the same pictures for dynamism and pleasantness. We found that male bodies were judged more dynamic than female bodies with the same pose. Also, female bodies were liked more in static than in dynamic poses. A mediation analysis allowed us to further shed light on the relationship between gender-typing features and motion, suggesting that the less is the movement conveyed by a female body, the greater is an observer’s sensitivity to its femininity, and this leads to a more positive evaluation of its pleasantness. Our findings hint to an association between stillness and femininity in body perception, which can stem from either the evolutionary meaning of sexual selection and/or the influence of cultural norms.
General Discussion
The present study aimed to investigate how the manipulation of gender-specific morphological features and implied motion of a body interact in its judgments. To this end, we asked participants to rate the masculinity and femininity (Experiment 1) or the dynamism and pleasantness (Experiment 2) of a series of pictures depicting male and female bodies expressing different amounts of gender-typing features (60% vs. 90% typicality) and displayed in static or dynamic postures. As expected, participants assigned higher value of masculinity and femininity to more gender-typical male and female bodies, respectively. However, the most interesting finding was that also implied motion influenced the gender judgment of body figures, at least when they were displayed with less gender-typing features (i.e., 60% typicality). Indeed, participants tended to perceive low-typical female bodies as more feminine when displayed in static than dynamic poses and to perceive low-typical male bodies as more masculine in dynamic than static poses. Crucially, however, not only implied motion influenced the perception of the gender-typing features of a body figure, but also gender typicality influenced the perception of motion conveyed by a body posture. Indeed, we found that models with typical female-typing features were evaluated as less dynamic than models with typical male-typing features, even when they displayed the same pose. This pattern of results suggests that gender-typing morphological cues and implied motion interact in shaping the perception of body gender. When morphological cues are not clear, the perception of static or dynamic postures pushes gender perception toward a female or male body, respectively. In a similar vein, when the motion conveyed by a body is fuzzy (e.g., implied motion in body pictures), the perception of female- or male-typing features pushes motion perception toward stillness or dynamism, respectively.
Importantly, we also found, at both subject- and item-level analyses, that the association between stillness and femininity influenced the aesthetic appreciation of a body. Indeed, bodies with more gender-typing features (i.e., 90% typicality) were liked more than less-typical bodies (60% typicality). This is in line with the notion that the stereotypical representation of the body according to its gender has implications for its aesthetic appreciation (McCreary et al., 2005), reflecting a correlation between gender-typing features and the impression of a good-looking body (Johnstone, 1994; Grammer et al., 2003; Singh and Singh, 2011). However, we also found that, within female figures, the models in static poses were evaluated as more pleasant than those in dynamic poses. This may seem in contrast with studies showing that more dynamic dance poses are liked more (Calvo-Merino et al., 2008; Cross and Ticini, 2012; Kirsch et al., 2016) and that implied motion enhances the aesthetic appreciation of human bodies (Cazzato et al., 2012), in terms of either attribution of intrinsic perceptual properties to the stimulus (i.e., beauty) or observer’s attitude to it (i.e., liking or attractiveness). However, albeit gender-typical features were less salient in these previous studies as compared to our study, implied motion was found to be a better predictor of the aesthetic appreciation of male than female bodies (Cazzato et al., 2012). In addition, the different impact of static and dynamic stimuli in the judgment of female physical attractiveness has already been reported in adult actresses, showing that more feminine WHRs and larger breasts are considered desirable traits in static photographs whereas more androgynous body shapes are considered appropriate in stars that perform in movies (Voracek and Fisher, 2006). Here we found that static postures increased the aesthetic appreciation of female bodies. This effect could be due to a direct negative effect of implied motion on the appreciation of female attractiveness or be indirectly mediated by a masking of female-typical physical traits. However, the item mediation analysis allowed us to better delineate the relationship between femininity perception, stillness and aesthetic appreciation. In particular, we tested two models, based on the hypothesis that either stillness increased the perceived femininity of a female body and thus increased its pleasantness (Model A) or that femininity reduced the implied motion of a female body and thus reduced its pleasantness (Model B). The results provided evidence in favor of the first model, since perception of femininity was a key mediator of the negative relation between implied motion and liking. In other words, the effect of implied motion on the liking judgments of female bodies was better explained by an indirect effect mediated by femininity than by a direct effect of implied motion on liking. This supports the claim that stillness increased the aesthetic appreciation of a female body at least partially because it increased its gender typicality, likely facilitating the perception of feminine-typing features. In sum, our data suggest that femininity and stillness, on one hand, and masculinity and dynamism, on the other hand, are associated features in body representation, confirming clues from both sexual-selection and socio-cultural frameworks.
In a sexual-selection evolutionist framework, perceiving a static female body vs. a dynamic male body may boost the salience of gender-typing physical traits, such as WHR for women and muscularity for men. Numerous studies, indeed, have shown that a female body is strongly defined by the WHR, since it appears to be related to objective gender-specific qualities such as the levels of sex hormones (e.g., estradiol; De Ridder et al., 1990; Mondragón-Ceballos et al., 2015), the accessibility to fat resources suitable for fetal neurodevelopment (Lassek and Gaulin, 2008), and the more general capacity to sustain pregnancy (Singh, 1993). Obviously, WHR might only serve as a proxy for covariating bodily traits that shape the entire body phenotype and co-determine the judgment of body attractiveness (Brooks et al., 2015). Certainly, being able to select these qualities on the basis of visual cues increases the reproductive success of the species and, in this respect, the body shape of a woman could be considered as the best way to rapidly infer her femininity, meant as a set of biologically determined attributes. Since WHR is based on the computation of the waist and hip proportions, it is plausible that movements may affect its estimation altering shape and size perception. A body in motion, indeed, can provide misleading information about shape, for instance by producing overlaps of body parts (i.e., arms that cover hips while running). As shown in a recent eye-tracking study (Pazhoohi et al., 2020), WHR is widely view-dependent and movement pattern can cause variation in WHR detection, even if body proportions remain constant. On this view, dynamism may hinder the expression of the femininity of a woman by obscuring her salient shapes as compared to when staying in canonical static poses.
Conversely, as in many animal species, humans show sex differences in body composition and the amount of muscle mass appears to be greater in men than in women (Wells, 2007). Performing actions may accentuate the perception of body muscularity, thus biasing gender perception toward masculinity. Furthermore, male individuals seem to tend to disclose their masculinity right through movements (Darwin, 1871), as demonstrated by males of some species which use dance as a signal of neuromuscular condition (Maynard Smith, 1956) or flight ability (Williams, 2001). In humans, for example, it has been shown that men’s bodily symmetry, a measure that reflects the developmental stability of an organism (Moller and Swaddle, 1997; Polak, 2003) and preservation from morbidity and mortality (Stevenson, 2000), strongly correlates with their dance ability (Brown et al., 2005) and running performance (Manning and Pickup, 1998). This suggests that movements, rather than shape, may be a better predictor of men’s functional effectiveness.
As a legacy of sexual selection, the stereotypical association between femininity/stillness and masculinity/dynamism is reflected in socio-cultural norms, grounded on how people think men and women should differ. A domain in which this distinction is quite tangible is represented by sports context. Indeed, studies have suggested that, in most of Western countries, girls and women are less encouraged to participate in sports than boys and men (Eccles and Harold, 1991; Hartmann-Tews and Pfister, 2003) and, even in physical activities where women are predominant, such as performing arts (i.e., ballet), performance seems to be judged more on the basis of aesthetic features than body capability (Klomsten et al., 2005). Nevertheless, media images in sports endorses the stereotyped view of men’s and women’s bodies, emphasizing strength and physical abilities in the case of male athletes but featuring female performers in terms of a sexualized body (Von Der Lippe, 2002). This is in line with the present finding that perception of femininity appears to be intensified by a static body pose. In this regard, studies about “woman objectification,” which refers to the tendency to perceive a woman worth in light of her body appearance and sexual function, have demonstrated that the identification of the female body as an object available for satisfying the needs of men may diminish her attribution of agency (Cikara et al., 2011) and, consequently, underline her passive condition. Interestingly, recent researches have shown that images of female bodies are processed as a recollection of body parts rather than a whole figure (Bernard et al., 2012, 2015), a fragmentary process that is generally observed in the recognition of objects; notably, this pattern of visual perception occurs independently from the gender of the observer, demonstrating that such objectification of the female body involves women themselves. Thus, the well-proved association between femininity and object-related features could easily explain why static postures make bodies to appear more feminine. At the same time, men are encouraged to display their sex-typing features in keeping with contemporary masculine norms, which consider increased muscle mass as more masculine (Mishkind et al., 1986; McCreary et al., 2005). This may explain why men tend to express their gendered body through exercising and practicing physical activity. Accordingly, a study aimed at exploring the association between levels of exercise and patterns of masculinity in men undergoing androgen deprivation therapy has recently revealed that men who are aerobically active have higher levels of self-reported masculinity than those who are inactive (Langelier et al., 2018), highlighting the intersection of masculinity and physical activity. Further, women also seem to judge masculinity through body movements, since they assess a man’s physical strength and attractiveness on the basis of his gait (Fink et al., 2016).
The conclusions that can be drawn from this study need to be weighted in the light of important limitations. First of all, we investigated the effects of dynamic cues in body perception by using static pictures of bodies with implied motion. This allowed controlling for the amount of body views offered in videos of a moving or still person, but obviously limits the salience and naturalness of body movements. Nevertheless, there is evidence for common neurocognitive representation of actual and implied body movements (Urgesi et al., 2006; Cazzato et al., 2014, 2016). Furthermore, the limited sample size prevented us from examining differences between male and female observers and to generally explore the role of individual differences in body-related processes on the association between stillness, femininity, and aesthetic appreciation of bodies. However, in keeping with previous findings (Bernard et al., 2012, 2015), our analyses showed overlapping pattern of results in male and female participants, at least in Experiment 1 where the effects of implied motion on masculinity/femininity perception were explored. Further studies with larger sample are required to appropriately test for gender effects in body perception. Furthermore, we found overlapping results not only when data were treated at the subject level, thus aiming at generalizing at wider population of male and female observers, but also at the item level, thus aiming at generalizing the results at a wider population of male and female bodies. The use of only a limited number of variations in gender typicality (i.e., 60% vs. 90%) prevents us from describing the effect of implied motion on female and male bodies along the continuous nature of gender typicality. Future studies, thus, need to test a larger sample and use different types of stimuli (e.g., videos of real rather than computer-generated bodies in movements) with greater variations of gender typicality and greater ecological validity in order to shed light on whether the association between stillness and femininity concerns mostly perceptive mechanisms or the stereotypical meaning assigned to men and women.
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