More incel tweets in places where mating competition among men is likely to be high because of male-biased sex ratios, few single women, high income inequality, and small gender gaps in income

Incel Activity on Social Media Linked to Local Mating Ecology. Robert C. Brooks, Daniel Russo-Batterham, Khandis R. Blake. Psychological Science, January 11, https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211036065

Abstract: Young men with few prospects of attracting a mate have historically threatened the internal peace and stability of societies. In some contemporary societies, such involuntary celibate—or incel—men promote much online misogyny and perpetrate real-world violence. We tested the prediction that online incel activity arises via local real-world mating-market forces that affect relationship formation. From a database of 4 billion Twitter posts (2012–2018), we geolocated 321 million tweets to 582 commuting zones in the continental United States, of which 3,649 tweets used words peculiar to incels and 3,745 were about incels. We show that such tweets arise disproportionately within places where mating competition among men is likely to be high because of male-biased sex ratios, few single women, high income inequality, and small gender gaps in income. Our results suggest a role for social media in monitoring and mitigating factors that lead young men toward antisocial behavior in real-world societies.

Keywords: evolutionary psychology, human mate selection, male–female relations, sex-role attitudes, socioeconomic status, misogyny, cyberhate, inequality, open data

A curvilinear effect of gender equality on the participation of female players was found, demonstrating that gender differences in chess participation are largest at the highest and lowest ends of the gender-equality spectrum

Queen’s Gambit Declined: The Gender-Equality Paradox in Chess Participation Across 160 Countries. Allon Vishkin. Psychological Science, January 11, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211034806

Abstract: The gender-equality paradox refers to the puzzling finding that societies with more gender equality demonstrate larger gender differences across a range of phenomena, most notably in the proportion of women who pursue degrees in science, technology, engineering, and math. The present investigation demonstrates across two different measures of gender equality that this paradox extends to chess participation (N = 803,485 across 160 countries; age range: 3–100 years), specifically that women participate more often in countries with less gender equality. Previous explanations for the paradox fail to account for this finding. Instead, consistent with the notion that gender equality reflects a generational shift, mediation analyses suggest that the gender-equality paradox in chess is driven by the greater participation of younger players in countries with less gender equality. A curvilinear effect of gender equality on the participation of female players was also found, demonstrating that gender differences in chess participation are largest at the highest and lowest ends of the gender-equality spectrum.

Keywords: gender equality, cross-cultural differences, gender differences, chess, open materials

Coronavirus impact on interest in owning a firearm: That interest actually increased at an unprecedented rate

The impact of the coronavirus pandemic on interest in owning a firearm in the American public. Stylianos Syropoulos, Elise Puschett & Bernhard Leidner. Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, Jan 10 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743603.2021.2018931

Abstract: News outlets ran stories suggesting that firearm purchases in the United States might have increased during the onset of the Coronavirus pandemic. Such claims were made because gun stores were deemed essential businesses at the onset of the pandemic. However, there is no scientific evidence to validate this claim. We tested whether intentions to own a firearm actually increased at an unprecedented rate, by comparing the rate of increase in firearm checks (a conservative estimate of intentions to obtain a firearm) at the onset of the pandemic with the same time period in previous years as well as with significant events in recent American history. We defined the month of February as the onset of the Coronavirus pandemic in the United States because this was the month in which (a) the pandemic caught wider national attention, (b) the first official presidential address relevant to the Coronavirus was made, and (c) the CDC initiated its first measures to stop the spread of the virus. Understanding why (inclination toward) firearm ownership increases during times of national crises can help researchers and gun policy makers better understand the psychological needs driving firearm ownership, and potentially improve gun regulations and gun policies for the future.

Keywords: FirearmsCoronavirusgun violencethreat

It is not clear that in Darwinia (a nation in which departures from perfect rationality have an evolutionary explanation), policymakers should behave very differently from in Durkheimia (where departures from perfect rationality have a cultural explanation)

Sunstein, Cass R., On the Limited Policy Relevance of Evolutionary Explanations (January 7, 2022). Forthcoming, Behavioral Public Policy, SSRN: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4003339

Abstract: Evolutionary explanations for behavioral findings are often both fascinating and plausible. But even so, they do not establish that people are acting rationally, that they are not making mistakes, or that their decisions are promoting their welfare. For example, present bias, optimistic overconfidence, and use of the availability heuristic can produce terrible mistakes and serious welfare losses, and this is so even if they have evolutionary foundations. There might well be evolutionary explanations for certain kinds of in-group favoritism, and also for certain male attitudes and actions toward women, and also for human mistreatment of and cruelty toward nonhuman animals. But those explanations would not justify anything at all. It is not clear that in Darwinia (a nation in which departures from perfect rationality have an evolutionary explanation), policymakers should behave very differently from in Durkheimia (a nation in which departures from perfect rationality have a cultural explanation).

Keywords: Present bias, optimistic overconfidence, behavioral economics, availability heuristic, reciprocity, evolutionary explanations

JEL Classification: D9, D91

Social rank recognition involves the coordinated activity of highly conserved neural circuits across multiple levels of cognition, from the seemingly innate perception of social status signals to more fine-tuned learning of specific individuals' social rank

Neural systems that facilitate the representation of social rank. Madeleine F. Dwortz, James P. Curley, Kay M. Tye and Nancy Padilla-Coreano. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, January 10 2022. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0444

Abstract: Across species, animals organize into social dominance hierarchies that serve to decrease aggression and facilitate survival of the group. Neuroscientists have adopted several model organisms to study dominance hierarchies in the laboratory setting, including fish, reptiles, rodents and primates. We review recent literature across species that sheds light onto how the brain represents social rank to guide socially appropriate behaviour within a dominance hierarchy. First, we discuss how the brain responds to social status signals. Then, we discuss social approach and avoidance learning mechanisms that we propose could drive rank-appropriate behaviour. Lastly, we discuss how the brain represents memories of individuals (social memory) and how this may support the maintenance of unique individual relationships within a social group.

5. Conclusion and future directions

The evidence reviewed supports that social rank recognition involves the coordinated activity of highly conserved neural circuits across multiple levels of cognition, ranging from the seemingly innate perception of social status signals to more fine-tuned learning of social rank of specific individuals. Notably, the amygdala and dopaminergic neurons are involved in responding to status signals and driving learning about social rank through social interactions. While it appears that status signals serve to bypass the need for experience-based learning and prior social interactions that could incur physical injury, the extent to which status signal responses are innate or learned needs to be more thoroughly investigated. This theory, along with several other critical questions about how the brain processes social status signals, needs to be further investigated. In particular, the impact of an animal's familiarity with a social stimulus on their perception of status signals needs to be systematically studied across species. In addition, the role of an animal's own social rank in modulating how they process external status signals is largely unknown. An individual's social rank appears to influence behaviours related to acquiring social information, such as attentional postures and visual gaze direction [3–9], but how social information is differentially represented in the brains of hierarchically ranked animals is understudied. Lastly and perhaps most glaringly absent from our knowledge is how the female brain represents social rank and the neural underpinnings of how females negotiate social rank relationships. Much of the knowledge presented in this review stems from experiments conducted almost exclusively in male animals.

The technical difficulty of studying proximal mechanisms of brain function in naturalistic contexts has been a major hurdle in studying such questions and has led to our limited knowledge of the neural dynamics underlying social group behaviours. Although the species discussed in this review form dominance hierarchies, evidence for the neural systems involved in the representation of social rank typically does not come directly from animals living and behaving freely in groups. Laboratory-based neurobiological and behavioural studies have an overrepresentation of simple dyadic social interaction assays that do not directly examine the representation of social rank in groups, and traditionally measure behaviours that are exclusively expressed by males. Moreover, traditional neural recording methods, such as electrophysiology, have been hard to implement in multiple freely moving animals because of physical constraints. Several recent technological advancements have increased our ability to study the neural basis of social rank learning and memory in larger and more natural group settings. In the past few years, open-source tools have been developed to automatically track and assist in the quantification of behaviour of multiple group-living animals [182–185]. Moreover, technological advancements in light wireless neural activity recording now allow recording from multiple freely moving animals simultaneously [186]. These new developments combined will dramatically facilitate the study of neural circuits and dynamics underlying social group behaviour. We anticipate that the next decade will bring new perspectives on the neurobiology of social group behaviours that will enhance our understanding of how animals in large groups learn and represent social rank.

People generally prefer likers to dislikers ; likes are stronger and more self-revealing than dislikes

Attitude similarity and interpersonal liking: A dominance of positive over negative attitudes. Tabea J. Zorn, André Mat, Hans Alves. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 100, May 2022, 104281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104281

Highlights

•People like others who hold similar attitudes.

•Similar positive attitudes elicit more liking than similar negative attitudes.

•People generally prefer others with positive attitudes.

•Positive attitudes are stronger and more self-revealing than negative attitudes.

Abstract: Sharing attitudes leads to liking. While this similarity effect is well-established, past research rarely addressed whether positive and negative attitudes differ in their potential to elicit liking. Hence, it is unclear whether people prefer others who share their likes or others who share their dislikes. Four studies (N = 402) showed that likes have a stronger potential to elicit liking than dislikes. That is, participants found others who shared their likes more likable than others who shared their dislikes (Study 1). Also, participants found others who did not share their likes least likable, while not sharing dislikes was not as detrimental to liking (Study 2). We argue that three aspects contribute to this finding. First, people generally prefer likers to dislikers (Study 3). Second and third, likes are stronger and more self-revealing than dislikes (Studies 2 & 4). We discuss the present work's novel insights into the similarity effect and their implications for dating and friendship initiation.

Keywords: Interpersonal likingSimilarityAttitudesImpression formationDatingFriendship initiation

Six million speeches given in U.S. Congress, 1858-2014: Eemotionality is higher for Democrats, for women, for ethnic/religious minorities, for the opposition party, & for members with ideologically extreme roll-call voting records

Emotion and Reason in Political Language, Gloria Gennaro, Elliott Ash. The Economic Journal, ueab104, December 30 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab104

Abstract: This paper studies the use of emotion and reason in political discourse. Adopting computational-linguistics techniques to construct a validated text-based scale, we measure emotionality in 6 million speeches given in U.S. Congress over the years 1858-2014. Intuitively, emotionality spikes during times of war and is highest in speeches about patriotism. In the time series, emotionality was relatively low and stable in earlier years but increased significantly starting in the late 1970s. Across Congress Members, emotionality is higher for Democrats, for women, for ethnic/religious minorities, for the opposition party, and for members with ideologically extreme roll-call voting records.

JEL C45 - Neural Networks and Related TopicsC55 - Large Data Sets: Modeling and AnalysisD72 - Political Processes: Rent-seeking, Lobbying, Elections, Legislatures, and Voting BehaviorD91 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making

Libertarianism is linked with indicators of positive adjustment, whereas Moral Traditionalism and Ethnic Separateness were linked with indices of negativity bias

Three Dimensions of American Conservative Political Orientation Differentially Predict Negativity Bias and Satisfaction With Life. Xiaowen Xu, Caitlin M. Burton, Jason E. Plaks. Social Psychological and Personality Science, January 6, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211057976

Abstract: Numerous studies have linked political conservatism with negativity bias, whereas others have linked conservatism with indicators of positive adjustment. This research sought to reconcile this seeming contradiction by examining whether distinct dimensions of conservatism differentially predicted measures of negativity bias and positive adjustment. In two studies, we used an empirically derived and validated Attitude-Based Political Conservatism (ABPC) Scale that captures three correlated but distinct factors of American conservatism: Libertarian Independence, Moral Traditionalism, and Ethnic Separateness. In both studies (N = 1,756), Libertarian Independence was linked with indicators of positive adjustment, whereas Moral Traditionalism and Ethnic Separateness were linked with indices of negativity bias. By identifying which dimensions of conservatism predict negativity bias and positive adjustment, this work illuminates the unique psychological foundations of distinct strands of conservatism in America.

Keywords: conservatism, political orientation, political ideology, individual differences

Given that most of the news consumed by the public comes from reliable sources, small increases in acceptance of reliable information improve the global information score more than bringing acceptance of misinformation to 0%

Research note: Fighting misinformation or fighting for information? Alberto Acerbi, Sacha Altay, Hugo Mercier. Jan 12 2022. https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/research-note-fighting-misinformation-or-fighting-for-information/

Abstract: A wealth of interventions have been devised to reduce belief in fake news or the tendency to share such news. By contrast, interventions aimed at increasing trust in reliable news sources have received less attention. In this article, we show that, given the very limited prevalence of misinformation (including fake news), interventions aimed at reducing acceptance or spread of such news are bound to have very small effects on the overall quality of the information environment, especially compared to interventions aimed at increasing trust in reliable news sources. To make this argument, we simulate the effect that such interventions have on a global information score, which increases when people accept reliable information and decreases when people accept misinformation.

Research Question: Given limited resources, should we focus our efforts on fighting the spread of misinformation or on supporting the acceptance of reliable information?

Summary: To test the efficacy of various interventions aimed at improving the informational environment, we developed a model computing a global information score, which is the share of accepted pieces of reliable information minus the share of accepted pieces of misinformation.

Simulations show that, given that most of the news consumed by the public comes from reliable sources, small increases in acceptance of reliable information (e.g., 1%) improve the global information score more than bringing acceptance of misinformation to 0%. This outcome is robust for a wide range of parameters and is also observed if acceptance of misinformation decreases trust in reliable information or increases the supply of misinformation (within plausible limits).

Our results suggest that more efforts should be devoted to improving acceptance of reliable information, relative to fighting misinformation.

More elaborate simulations will allow for finer-grained comparisons of interventions targeting misinformation vs. interventions targeting reliable information, by considering their broad impact on the informational environment.

In the US, both Democrats and Republicans substantially overestimate the number of political outgroup members who approve of blatant wrongs

Puryear, Curtis, Emily Kubin, Chelsea Schein, Yochanan Bigman, and Kurt Gray. 2022. “Bridging Political Divides by Correcting the Basic Morality Bias.” PsyArXiv. January 11. doi:10.31234/osf.io/fk8g6

Abstract: Efforts to bridge political divides often focus on navigating complex and divisive issues. However, nine studies suggest that we should also focus on a more basic moral divide: the erroneous belief that political opponents lack a fundamental sense of right and wrong. This “basic morality bias” is tied to political dehumanization and is revealed by multiple methods, including natural language analyses from a large Twitter corpus, and a representative survey of Americans with incentives for accuracy. In the US, both Democrats and Republicans substantially overestimate the number of political outgroup members who approve of blatant wrongs (e.g., child pornography, embezzlement). Importantly, the basic morality bias can be corrected with a brief, scalable intervention. Providing information that just one political opponent condemns blatant wrongs increases willingness to work with political opponents and substantially decreases political dehumanization.

3 years of breastfeeding were compelled by the leading causes of infant mortality in ancestral settings—infection and malnutrition-related disease; lactation-based caregiving gave lactation-based cohesion, with fitness payoffs for infants

Attachment and Caregiving in the Mother–Infant Dyad: Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Models of their Origins in the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness. Sybil L. Hart. Evolutionary Perspectives on Infancy pp 135-160, January 1 2022. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-76000-7_7

Abstract: This chapter offers evolutionary developmental psychology models of caregiving and attachment as species-wide features of infant–maternal relationships. We explain that 3 years of breastfeeding were compelled by the leading causes of infant mortality in ancestral settings—infection and malnutrition-related disease—and discuss how it underpinned lactation-based caregiving and a biobehavioral bond, lactation-based cohesion, with fitness payoffs for infants: (1) protection against malnutrition and morbidity; (2) preservation of the inter-birth interval (IBI) as a haven against competition with a newborn sibling; and (3) psychological benefits of steady and enduring exposure to a profoundly satisfying manner of proximal contact with a caregiver. We theorize that lactation-based caregiving and cohesion satisfied infants’ physical and psychological needs, and in doing so laid the foundation of a psychological adaptation, child-to-mother attachment, an affectional bond able to withstand being untethered to lactation by infants’ third year. The timing of the transition from lactation-based cohesion to attachment coincided with attenuated dependence on breast milk due to maturation of infants’ digestive and immune systems, and with the eruption of infants’ molar teeth, which prompted mothers to bring breastfeeding to conclusion. At this juncture, mothers transitioned to caring for weanlings (rather than nurslings), which meant an end to maternal caregiving being upheld by biobehavioral features of lactation. We argue that absent such support, the costliness of caregiving of weanlings compelled an adapted psychological mechanism, mother-to-child attachment, defined as an affectional bond between ancestral mothers and their former nurslings that was anchored in 3 years of lactation-based caregiving and cohesion.

Keywords: Lactation-based cohesion Lactation-based caregiving Child-to-mother attachment Mother-to-child attachment Breastfeeding Lactation Breast milk Kwashiorkor 

Executive teams are becoming increasingly partisan, partly because of increased sorting by partisan executives into firms with like-minded individuals; executives of minority political views have a higher probability of leaving

The Political Polarization of United States Firms. Vyacheslav Fos, Elisabeth Kempf, Margarita Tsoutsoura. American Economic Ass'n Conference 'CEOs and Politics,' Jan 7 2022. https://www.aeaweb.org/conference/2022/preliminary/2052

Abstract: Executive teams in U.S. firms are becoming increasingly partisan, leading to a political polarization of corporate America. We establish this new fact using political affiliations from voter registration records for top executives of S&P 1500 firms between 2008 and 2018. The rise in partisanship is explained by both an increasing share of Republican executives and increased sorting by partisan executives into firms with like-minded individuals. Further, we find that within a given firm-year, executives whose political views do not match those of the team's majority have a higher probability of leaving the firm. The increase in partisanship is taking place despite executive teams becoming more diverse in terms of gender and race.

Despite a more authoritarian personality, Republican CEOs, known to favor the avoidance of threats and ambiguity, tend to prefer a less asymmetric information environment; hence they make more frequent, timelier, and more accurate disclosures

CEO Political Ideology and Voluntary Forward-Looking Disclosure. Md Noman Hossain et al. American Economic Ass'n Conference 'CEOs and Politics,' Jan 7 2022. https://www.aeaweb.org/conference/2022/preliminary/2052

Abstract: This study investigates the information disclosure preferences of Republican versus Democrat CEOs using management earnings forecasts. Republican CEOs are known to favor the avoidance of threats and ambiguity, and this seems to outweigh the tendency to seize on information, associated with their authoritarian personalities. We find that Republican CEOs tend to prefer a less asymmetric information environment; hence they make more frequent, timelier, and more accurate disclosures than Democrat CEOs. We address endogeneity concerns using propensity score matching and difference-in-differences estimation and show that our results are unlikely to be driven by potential endogeneity. Our results are robust to controlling for CEO characteristics, incentives, overconfidence, and managerial ability, and are stronger for firms with higher levels of institutional ownership and litigation risk.

Luxembourg: Sexual problems increased during the COVID-19 measures while sexual satisfaction decreased compared to prior the COVID-19 measures (assessed retrospectively)

Sexual Satisfaction and Sexual Behaviors During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Results From the International Sexual Health and Reproductive (I-SHARE) Health Survey in Luxembourg. Fischer VJ, Gómez-Bravo R, Brunnet AE, Michielsen K, Tucker JD, Campbell L, Vögele C. Preprint from Research Square, Jan 7 2022. DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1178513/v1 PPR: PPR440376 

Abstract 

Aim: To identify the impact of COVID-19 measures on sexual behaviors and sexual satisfaction in Luxembourg residents.

Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional online survey of adults (> 18 years of age) residing in Luxembourg, while COVID-19 restrictions were in place. The survey was available in four languages (French, German, English and Portuguese). Survey questions focused on masturbation, cuddling, condom use, sex frequency, sexting, cybersex, watching porn, and sexual satisfaction.

Results: 557 volunteers completed the survey (35.5% men, 64.3% women). Sexual problems increased during the COVID-19 measures while sexual satisfaction decreased compared to prior the COVID-19 measures (assessed retrospectively). Factors associated with increased odds of sexual satisfaction were: having a steady relationship before COVID-19 restrictions, engaging in sexting, reporting good mental health and not altering alcohol intake.

Conclusions: The context of the COVID-19 pandemic and the measures implemented in Luxembourg affected sexual behaviors and sexual satisfaction. Sexual and reproductive health care centers and health professionals in general should take these results into consideration when providing care. Recommendations on the importance of sexual health for general wellbeing and behaviors associated with sexual satisfaction should be offered and possibilities to experience sexuality while reducing contamination risks be discussed.

Discussion

The present study examined the impact of measures imposed by the Luxembourgish government to fight the COVID-19 pandemic on self-reported sexual behaviors, substance use and mental health.

We found a decrease in sex frequency during COVID-19 compared to the period before the introduction of the COVID-19 measures. The proportion of respondents reporting a decrease in sexual activities was higher in those with steady partners (35.8 %) compared to those with casual partners (14.3%). This decrease was larger than the one found in a study comparing individuals from the English and Spanish populations (7), but smaller than the decrease found in a multi-country study with 30 different countries (18). The reasons for these differences between studies are unclear. Nevertheless, any decrease in sexual activity could have overall health implications, as a decrease in sexual intercourse has been reported to be associated with an overall decline in well-being (11).

A large proportion of the present sample (46.5%) reported low sexual satisfaction. Similar findings were also found in other I-SHARE countries where, overall, 39.6% reported low sexual satisfaction (18). This demonstrates the need for health professionals to address sexual and reproductive health issues during the COVID-19 pandemic and the importance of sexual health for general health and wellbeing.  

Our data indicate that being in a relationship before the implementation of the COVID-19 measures increased the chances of sexual satisfaction during COVID-19. This is in line with the literature, which found that people in steady relationships during the COVID-19 measures were more sexually active and also more satisfied (18). This corroborates the evidence on the association between sexual satisfaction and more frequent sexual activity (19, 20). In addition, this is in accordance with the finding that an increase in self-masturbation was associated with higher odds of increased sexual dissatisfaction. In this context, it is plausible that self-masturbation might have been used as a coping strategy for some. In the present sample, we found a 18% increase in the frequency of masturbation, which is almost twice the percentage reported by Ibarra et al. (7), but a very similar prevalence of no change in autoerotism when compared to an Italian study (61.2% in Italy, 59.9% in Luxembourg) (11).

Findings on the relationship between masturbatory behavior and sexual activity and satisfaction are inconsistent. Masturbation offers the possibility of sexual pleasure independent of a partner’s availability and sexual health. For women, masturbation seems to be related to more consistent orgasms compared with partnered sex (21, 22, 23). Nonetheless, weak or negative associations between solitary and partnered sexual activity or satisfaction have been found (24, 25).

With regards to sexual problems, our findings show an increase in sexual problems in those in partnership (either oneself or of the partner) during the pandemic. This result is in line with other studies that have addressed this question. Since the beginning of the pandemic, an increase in sexual problems has been found in a range of populations in different countries, for instance in COVID-19 positive women (26) and in uninfected pregnant women in Turkey (27), in women in the U.S. (28) and in men and women in Egypt (29).

Our data suggest that people who increased sexting (exchange of sex-content messages such as naked/semi-naked pictures, audios or videos with a partner) had higher odds of reporting sexual satisfaction. Sexting and cybersex might have acted as a tool for different sexual activities in a person or couple’s sexual repertoire (30). Our results are in line both with other studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic that found the use of digital means for sexual communication a way to maintain oneself sexually active (7) and with the literature on sexting and relationship satisfaction that found higher relationship satisfaction in people who engaged in sexting (31, 32, 33).

With respect to mental health, the ability to adapt to the new pandemic context benefitted levels of sexual satisfaction. This becomes clear when observing that respondents who reported good general mental health presented higher scores of sexual satisfaction. This is in line with the literature, that found a higher risk of developing anxiety and depression among those who were not sexually active during the lockdown (13). Similarly to the adaptation findings regarding mental health, participants who reported no change in alcohol consumption had higher odds of reporting sexual satisfaction. This can possibly be explained by better personal resources to adapt to the pandemic context, and not using alcohol as a coping strategy to deal with the COVID-19 measures.  Alcohol consumption as a coping strategy has been identified in previous pandemic outbreaks, e.g. severe acute respiratory syndrome (34). So far, during the COVID-19 pandemic, an increase in alcohol consumption has been reported both in the general population (35, 36) and among university students (37).

Strengths and Limitations 

This study has several limitations. First, our study was conducted online which can lead to selection bias (e.g., only people with internet access could take part). Second, our sample was recruited using a convenience approach, predominantly via social media platforms and invitations to key sexual health organizations of the country, which limits the generalizability of the study findings. To overcome such conditions, we employed a broad recruitment strategy (38), using different social media, traditional media, press release, partnering with key governmental and non-governmental institutions as well as invitations to participants of previous COVID19 studies who agreed to be contacted for further studies.  

Despite these limitations, this study contributes to the literature on sexual behavior during COVID-19, and the results indicate the importance of continuing research to support policy and help care provision. From a research and policy perspective, longitudinal assessments of the population are needed to properly identify their health needs. On a care provision level, sexual and mental health professionals should be trained and updated to face the population’s new demands with reference to sexual behaviors and satisfaction during times of crises such as infectious disease outbreaks.    

New genetics study of 5.4 million individuals on height: The top ~12k genetic variants explain ~40% of individual differences in Europeans, and 10-20% in other ancestries

A Saturated Map of Common Genetic Variants Associated with Human Height from 5.4 Million Individuals of Diverse Ancestries. Loic Yengo et al. bioRxiv Jan 10 20222. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.01.07.475305

Abstract: Common SNPs are predicted to collectively explain 40-50% of phenotypic variation in human height, but identifying the specific variants and associated regions requires huge sample sizes. Here we show, using GWAS data from 5.4 million individuals of diverse ancestries, that 12,111 independent SNPs that are significantly associated with height account for nearly all of the common SNP-based heritability. These SNPs are clustered within 7,209 non-overlapping genomic segments with a median size of ~90 kb, covering ~21% of the genome. The density of independent associations varies across the genome and the regions of elevated density are enriched for biologically relevant genes. In out-of-sample estimation and prediction, the 12,111 SNPs account for 40% of phenotypic variance in European ancestry populations but only ~10%-20% in other ancestries. Effect sizes, associated regions, and gene prioritization are similar across ancestries, indicating that reduced prediction accuracy is likely explained by linkage disequilibrium and allele frequency differences within associated regions. Finally, we show that the relevant biological pathways are detectable with smaller sample sizes than needed to implicate causal genes and variants. Overall, this study, the largest GWAS to date, provides an unprecedented saturated map of specific genomic regions containing the vast majority of common height-associated variants.

Rates of Forced Sexual Experiences Among High School Students From 2001 to 2019: Rates of forced sex maintained for girls, there was a decrease over time for boys; as girls and boys aged, the risk of forced sex increased

Rates of Forced Sexual Experiences Among High School Students From 2001 to 2019. Tiffany L. Marcantonio, James Weese, Malachi Willis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, January 6, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211055155

Abstract: Public awareness of sexual assault and initiatives aimed at preventing sexual assault continue to increase over the years. However, whether rates of sexual assault have diminished because of such cultural shifts remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to assess if rates of sexual assault (i.e., forced sex) have changed over the past 18 years for adolescent girls and boys as well as potential differences across racial/ethnic identities. Using nationally representative data from the Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance Survey from 2001 to 2019, we conducted logistic regressions to assess rates of experiences of forced sex by sex and by sex and racial/ethnic identity, while accounting for grade level. Participants included 135,837 high school students. From 2001 to 2019, rates of forced sex maintained for girls; however, there was a decrease over time for boys. For girls, there were inconsistent differences in rates of forced sex by racial/ethnic identities. However, boys who identified as Black, Hispanic, Multi-Racial, and Other Race/Ethnicity were at higher risk to report forced sex than their White peers, until 2015; only Other Race/Ethnicity was at higher risk in 2019. As girls and boys aged, the risk of forced sex increased. Despite prevention efforts, rates of forced sex did not decrease from 2001 to 2019 for adolescent girls disregarding race/ethnicity, and for racial/ethnic minority boys. That rates of forced sex continue to be high is problematic as experiencing sexual assault at an earlier age is associated with myriad consequences. Further, results suggest current prevention initiatives may be inadequate at addressing risk factors for forced sex, and more broadly, sexual assault. Moving forward, researchers and educators may want to re-evaluate the strategies used to address and measure sexual assault experiences.

Keywords: sexual assault, forced sex, adolescent, YRBS, race/ethnicity minority, gender

Psychopathy factor 2 (erratic lifestyle & anti-sociality) weakly linked to lower intelligence; otherwise Dark Triad traits are relatively independent of IQ

Michels, M. (2022). General intelligence and the dark triad: A meta-analysis. Journal of Individual Differences, 43(1), 35-46. Jan 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000352

Abstract: The dark triad of personality (D3) – consisting of psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism – is a set of socially aversive personality traits. All three traits encompass disagreeable behavior and a particular disregard for the well-being of others, but also a tendency to strategic and deceptive manipulation of social environments in order to attain one′s goals. To exercise these complex manipulations effectively it seems beneficial to have high cognitive abilities. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted to examine possible relationships between intelligence and the dark triad. A total of 143 studies were identified to estimate the strength of relationships between the D3 and general, verbal, and nonverbal intelligence. The results indicate that none of the constructs of the dark triad are meaningfully related to intelligence. However, there was a small negative correlation between intelligence and Factor 2 psychopathy. The substantial heterogeneity regarding the observed effect sizes could not be explained with meta-regression for the most part. There was no evidence for a publication bias. In total, the results challenge the notion that the dark triad is an adaptive set of personality traits that enables individuals to effectively manipulate their social surroundings.

Keywords: intelligence, psychopathy, Machiavellianism, narcissism, meta-analysis

Discussion

The meta-analysis showed that the D3 and intelligence are at most weakly related. Whereas the psychopathy-intelligence-relation is negative, for M and N there seems to be no relation at all. It should be noted that the study sample for M and N is considerably lower compared to P. Two of three expectations were corroborated. Whereas M and N were (as expected) not related to cognitive abilities, the relation between psychopathy and intelligence was significant but very small. The cause for the effect might be the overlap between P and criminality: the latter has shown to be negatively related to intelligence. This becomes particularly evident considering the small negative relation between intelligence and the P-Factor 2 (the aspect of psychopathy that comprises norm-violating behavior). Since criminality is part of many P-test-items, it would be inadequate to interpret this overlap as confounding. Furthermore, intelligence is negatively related to impulsivity (Schweizer, 2002; Vigil-Coleṭ & Morales-Vives, 2005) and aggression (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997) – two conceptual features of Factor 2 psychopathy. Alternatively, the negative P-intelligence-relation might be due to range restriction in the primary studies and might disappear in the course of a secondary analysis of all raw data – yet the analysis of raw data mentioned above suggests the opposite. Nevertheless, the results indicate that D3-individuals do not have superior cognitive abilities that might enable them to show complex manipulative behavior. On the other hand, they do not seem to have relevant cognitive deficits as well. If one assumes that D3-individuals can indeed be more successful in some contexts than others (an assumption that should be scrutinized in the first place), this analysis demonstrates that this possible success is not a consequence of high cognitive abilities.

Surprisingly, the reanalysis of the raw data showed a moderate negative relation with intelligence: it is unclear if the study sample coincidently showed a moderate effect or if the meta-analytic results might have to be reinterpreted. A reanalysis of the original data from the primary studies might have shown similar results due to an underestimation of effect sizes due to range restriction in the isolated studies. But note that an overestimation of the effect in this meta-analysis is also possible due to range restriction. On the other hand, for example, Watts et al. (2016) found similar results as in this meta-analysis regarding P-intelligence and did correct for range restriction using a formula for correcting correlation estimates by Hunter and Schmidt (1990), which did not alter their overall results. However, the results from a P-gI-meta-analysis with k > 100 might be more credible than the reanalysis of only 7 datasets. The reanalysis of raw data did not raise any reason to further inspect the D3-relations to intelligence in regards to non-linear relationships.

Limitations of the Meta-Analysis

A few limitations of this meta-analysis should be considered: First, the combined effect sizes remained heterogeneous even after moderators had been taken into account. As a result, the reported overall effects may be quite different in subpopulations not under investigation in the present study. Second, the number of studies for M and N was very small, so that the inference had to be restricted to the types of studies under investigation and cannot be further generalized due to the use of the FE model. Third, the selection of tests for M and N that were used in the primary studies was narrow – which also made possible subscale-analyses for M and N impossible. This does not apply for P and most of the studies used the PCL (which is considered the “gold standard”-measure for psychopathy). Forth, a more fine-grained analysis of intelligence subdimensions on the basis of an overarching model of intelligence – preferably the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory (Carroll, 1993) – would have been desirable. Since the number of effect sizes per effect-size-category (e.g., P-gI) would have dropped substantially, a rather rough separation into verbal and non-verbal was the pragmatic consequence. Lastly, no gray literature was included in this analysis: Since there was no specific search for unpublished studies on the research question, a substantial body of literature might have been missed – nevertheless, the gray studies that were identified did not differ in methodology nor the reported effect size. Consequently, there was no reason to include them.

Machine learning: Men's sexual satisfaction was overall more predictable than women's

Identifying the strongest self-report predictors of sexual satisfaction using machine learning. Laura M. Vowels, Matthew J. Vowels, Kristen P. Mark. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, January 11, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075211047004

Abstract: Sexual satisfaction has been robustly associated with relationship and individual well-being. Previous studies have found several individual (e.g., gender, self-esteem, and attachment) and relational (e.g., relationship satisfaction, relationship length, and sexual desire) factors that predict sexual satisfaction. The aim of the present study was to identify which variables are the strongest, and the least strong, predictors of sexual satisfaction using modern machine learning. Previous research has relied primarily on traditional statistical models which are limited in their ability to estimate a large number of predictors, non-linear associations, and complex interactions. Through a machine learning algorithm, random forest (a potentially more flexible extension of decision trees), we predicted sexual satisfaction across two samples (total N = 1846; includes 754 individuals forming 377 couples). We also used a game theoretic interpretation technique, Shapley values, which allowed us to estimate the size and direction of the effect of each predictor variable on the model outcome. Findings showed that sexual satisfaction is highly predictable (48–62% of variance explained) with relationship variables (relationship satisfaction, importance of sex in relationship, romantic love, and dyadic desire) explaining the most variance in sexual satisfaction. The study highlighted important factors to focus on in future research and interventions.

Keywords: Sexual satisfaction, machine learning, random forests, Shapley values

Discussion

Our results showed that we could predict between 48 and 62% of the variance in sexual satisfaction using a random forest algorithm, up to two to three times more than previous studies even after deleting relationship satisfaction from the model (Byers & Macneil, 2006; Laumann et al., 2006). The algorithm is also explainable because it does not suffer from suppression and cancellation effects or multicollinearity. The results show that using machine learning can help move psychological research into a new era of highly predictive and accurate models that generalize better to the population and have a higher utility in practice (Yarkoni & Westfall, 2017).

The strongest predictors

Because of the importance of sexual satisfaction on relationship quality (Joel et al., 2020; McNulty et al., 2016; L. M. Vowels & K. P. Mark, 2020b) and overall well-being (Davison et al., 2009; Del Mar Sánchez-Fuentes et al., 2014), understanding factors that are the most, and the least, strongly associated with sexual satisfaction is important. This can enable researchers and practitioners to target individuals who may be at a particular risk of poor sexual satisfaction and helps to address factors that are the most likely to induce changes in sexual satisfaction while ignoring those that are the least likely to produce change. Thus, we added to the literature by examining which factors were the most, and least, predictive of sexual satisfaction in two samples.

Several variables that have previously been identified as important predictors of sexual satisfaction were included in the top-10 predictors: relationship satisfaction (Joel et al., 2020; McNulty et al., 2016; L. M. Vowels & K. P. Mark, 2020b), dyadic desire (Kim et al., 2020; Mark, 2012, 2014), romantic love (L. M. Vowels & K. P. Mark, 2020a), sexual communication (Impett et al., 2019), and perception of love and sex (Hendrick & Hendrick, 2002). Importantly, when relationship satisfaction was low, it had up to three times higher impact on the model outcome compared to when relationship satisfaction was high. Furthermore, participants in Sample 1 who viewed sex as an important part of their relationship and those who had sex regularly also had higher sexual satisfaction compared to participants who placed less importance on sex and more on love and had sex less frequently. Similarly, participants who reported a higher frequency of more varied sexual behaviors such as giving and receiving oral sex and mutual masturbation in Sample 2 reported higher levels of sexual satisfaction. These results suggest that frequency and value of sex as well as a more varied sexual repertoire in relationships are important predictors of sexual satisfaction. More varied sexual repertoire is also likely to lead to more satisfying sexual experiences, especially for women given that women have a higher likelihood of orgasm from clitoral stimulation than from intercourse. These results confirm earlier findings using traditional statistical models (Haavio-Mannila & Kontula, 1997; Laumann et al., 2006).

Gender was not an important predictor of sexual satisfaction suggesting that men and women overall had similar levels of sexual satisfaction in both samples which is consistent with some studies (Mark et al., 2018; McClelland, 2011) and inconsistent with others (Laumann et al., 2006). Men’s sexual satisfaction was overall more predictable than women’s. This may be because women’s sexuality is thought to be more complex than men’s (Basson, 2001). There were also some notable differences in the top-10 predictors for men and women. Attachment avoidance was only in the top-10 predictors for women’s sexual satisfaction (18th for men changing the outcome very little). Women who were higher in attachment avoidance reported lower sexual satisfaction compared to women lower in attachment avoidance. Attachment avoidance is associated with fear of closeness and intimacy, which tend to be more strongly tied to sexuality for women than men (Péloquin et al., 2014), which may explain why attachment avoidance was particularly important for women.

Consistent with previous studies using both traditional analyses (Rubin et al., 2012; L. M. Vowels & K. P. Mark, 2020a) and machine learning (Joel et al., 2020; L. M. Vowels et al., 2021), including partner effects added little additional variance. However, both actor and partner variables were among the top-10 most important predictors. Partner effects alone could also explain around half as much variance as only actor effects. Important partner variables included partner’s sexual satisfaction, romantic love, relationship satisfaction, and dyadic desire. Interestingly, for women, their male partner’s sexual satisfaction was just as important a predictor for their own sexual satisfaction than their relationship satisfaction. This is consistent with several studies finding that women partnered with men tend to answer questions of sexual satisfaction relative to their partner’s satisfaction as much as their own (McClelland, 2011, 2014; Pascoal et al., 2014) and may be due to there being a societal expectation on women to prioritize men’s pleasure. For men, their female partner’s sexual satisfaction only accounted for about third as much change in sexual satisfaction compared to their own relationship satisfaction. These findings suggest that while we may be able to predict actor’s sexual satisfaction relatively well using only their own variables, accounting for both partners’ variables can provide important additional insights.

The present study also provided an important addition to the literature by evaluating which factors were unimportant for sexual satisfaction. Many of the variables that have previously been associated with sexual satisfaction in traditional analyses were less important compared to other predictors. These included variables such as gender, sexual orientation, children, religiosity, attitudes toward sexuality, and mental health (Del Mar Sánchez-Fuentes et al., 2014; Laumann et al., 2006). This suggests that even though differences in demographic variables may be statistically significant in some studies especially when sample sizes are large (e.g., Laumann et al., 2006), this does not mean that the differences are meaningful. In fact, the present study suggests the opposite; couple’s overall relationship and sexual behaviors are more proximal to sexual satisfaction and appear more important than who the person is. Understanding which variables are less related to the outcome is important, so that researchers and practitioners do not waste their time and resources on factors that are less likely to change the outcome.

Implications for research, theory, and practice

The study has several strengths as well as important implications for research, theory, and practice. We used explainable machine learning and cross-validation in which the model performance is tested on unseen data to avoid overfitting and thus improve the generalizability of the results. The code used in the study is readily available and provides a pipeline to relationship researchers to conduct more robust and predictable science. The results showed that dyadic level variables are the most likely to contribute to sexual satisfaction while individual predictors are less important. Furthermore, examining individuals’ perceptions of love and sex (Hendrick & Hendrick, 2002), keeping sex as a central element of relationships, and broadening couple’s sexual repertoire may enhance their sexual satisfaction. Finally, we expect many of these variables to have a bidirectional association with sexual satisfaction meaning that improving one (e.g., introducing more varied sexual behaviors) may produce a positive change in the other (e.g., enhanced sexual satisfaction) which will in turn improve the first variable (e.g., increased desire to try new things).

Limitations and future directions

The study also has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results. While the study included many predictors that have been associated with sexual satisfaction in previous research, there are other variables that we did not account for, that predict sexual satisfaction (e.g., responsiveness, self-esteem, personality, sociocultural variables). We also only had access to self- and partner-report measures. Thus, the algorithm could only make the predictions based on the variables that were available in the dataset. Therefore, future research should consider a greater number of individual, relational, and societal factors and include behavioral measures to predict sexual satisfaction. We also used data from two relatively large samples including a large subset of couples, the data were convenience samples and limited in their generalizability; most of the participants were white and well-educated and all participants in Sample 2 were in mixed-sex relationships, albeit nearly half the participants were bisexual. We also did not ask participants about any disabilities which may have contributed to their sexual satisfaction. Therefore, future research is needed to examine predictors of sexual satisfaction in a more representative sample. Random forests are a powerful tool that will take advantage of any correlations and interactions in the data, no matter how non-linear, it cannot be used to estimate causality. However, in the absence of a means to reliably estimate causality when examining factors relating to sexual satisfaction, we believe that using a predictive model is perhaps the best option. There are limitations to the Shapley method which have been discussed elsewhere (Kumar et al., 2020), and the notion that the human-interpretable Shapley model sufficiently explains our model suggests that a simpler model may be adequate to begin with, even if the simpler model is harder to identify (Rudin, 2019).

Furthermore, the data were cross-sectional and therefore we could not examine which predictors may account for the most change in sexual satisfaction over time, or indeed whether sexual satisfaction is predictable over time. Joel et al. (2020) found that they could predict little relationship satisfaction longitudinally. Cross-sectional self-report measures are also prone to shared method variance which results in higher correlation among variables collected at the same point in time. We attempted to overcome some of these issues by testing the models without relationship satisfaction given its high correlation with sexual satisfaction and only using partner effects to predict actor’s sexual satisfaction. The models with relationship satisfaction excluded were still predictive but predicted less variance. The models with partner effects alone could predict nearly 30% of the variance in actor’s sexual satisfaction which is higher than most other previous studies using actor or actor and partner effects. Future longitudinal and behavioral research is needed to understand whether the self-report variables measured in this study are predictive over time or whether behavioral measures could also be predictive. Finally, we examined whether men and women differed in the predictors that were important for their sexual satisfaction and future research could also examine whether the predictors of sexual satisfaction differ by sexual orientation.

Judgments About Male Victims of Sexual Assault: 2019 female cohort more likely to attribute encouragement to victim (27% in 2019 vs 4% in 1984) & to believe that the victim derived pleasure or had less stress (25% vs 5%) than female victims

Judgments About Male Victims of Sexual Assault by Women: A 35-Year Replication Study. Emma K. PeConga, Jacqueline E. Spector, Ronald E. Smith. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, January 3, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211062990

Abstract: Sexual assault of men by women has received increasing attention in recent years, as has research on rape myths about male victims. This study is a cross-generational replication of a 1984 study of college students’ judgments about male and female victims in a scenario involving a sexual assault carried out by male or female assailants. The 1984 data (n = 172) were compared with those of a 2019 cohort (n = 372) in a 2 (participant gender) x 2 (assailant gender) x 2 (victim gender) x 2 (cohort) factorial design to assess potential generational changes in perceptions of victims. Judgments by male participants of male victims of assaults carried out by women changed notably over time. The 2019 male cohort was less likely to judge that the victim initiated or encouraged the incident (40% in 1984 compared with 15% in 2019) and derived pleasure from it (47.4% in 1984 compared with 5.8% in 2019). In contrast, the 2019 female cohort was more likely to attribute victim encouragement (26.9% compared with 4.3% in 1984) and pleasure to the male victim (25% in 2019 compared with 5% in 1984). A similar gender pattern occurred in judgments of how stressful the event was for the male victim. Analysis of the 2019 data revealed that overall, despite scientific and cultural shifts that have occurred over the past three decades, participants continued to judge the male victim of assault by a female to have been more encouraging and to have experienced more pleasure and less stress than in any other assailant/victim gender combination. Results are discussed in relation to gendered stereotypical beliefs and male rape myths, as well as possible sensitization to power differentials inspired by the #MeToo movement. We emphasize the need for greater awareness and empirical attention to abuse that runs counter to preconceived notions about sexual victimization.

Keywords: rape, sexual assault, rape myths, male victimization, gender