Study of birds shows that corrections to air pollution start before 1950, as we already knew but couldn't measure

Bird specimens track 135 years of atmospheric black carbon and environmental policy. Shane G. DuBay and Carl C. Fuldner. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Early Edition, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1710239114



Significance: Emission inventories of major climate-forcing agents like black carbon suffer high uncertainty for the early industrial era, thereby limiting their utility for extracting past climate sensitivity to atmospheric pollutants. We identify bird specimens as incidental records of atmospheric black carbon, filling a major historical sampling gap. We find that prevailing emission inventories underestimate black carbon levels in the United States through the first decades of the 20th century, suggesting that black carbon’s contribution to past climate forcing may also be underestimated. This study builds toward a robust, spatially dynamic inventory of atmospheric black carbon, highlighting the value of natural history collections as a resource for addressing present-day environmental challenges.

Abstract: Atmospheric black carbon has long been recognized as a public health and environmental concern. More recently, black carbon has been identified as a major, ongoing contributor to anthropogenic climate change, thus making historical emission inventories of black carbon an essential tool for assessing past climate sensitivity and modeling future climate scenarios. Current estimates of black carbon emissions for the early industrial era have high uncertainty, however, because direct environmental sampling is sparse before the mid-1950s. Using photometric reflectance data of >1,300 bird specimens drawn from natural history collections, we track relative ambient concentrations of atmospheric black carbon between 1880 and 2015 within the US Manufacturing Belt, a region historically reliant on coal and dense with industry. Our data show that black carbon levels within the region peaked during the first decade of the 20th century. Following this peak, black carbon levels were positively correlated with coal consumption through midcentury, after which they decoupled, with black carbon concentrations declining as consumption continued to rise. The precipitous drop in atmospheric black carbon at midcentury reflects policies promoting burning efficiency and fuel transitions rather than regulating emissions alone. Our findings suggest that current emission inventories based on predictive modeling underestimate levels of atmospheric black carbon for the early industrial era, suggesting that the contribution of black carbon to past climate forcing may also be underestimated. These findings build toward a spatially dynamic emission inventory of black carbon based on direct environmental sampling.

Draft -- Teodoro León's "Las mentiras deliberadas de Podemos", militant views and political combativeness

Draft review of "Las mentiras deliberadas de Podemos" [1], published El País newspaper (EP), Oct 22 2017. First paragraph of [1]:

"En un estudio reciente de psicología cognitiva, Briony Swire-Thompson (Western Australia University) planteó a dos millares de ciudadanos estadounidenses un par de afirmaciones sobre una creencia absurda: ‘Las vacunas provocan autismo’ y ‘Donald Trump afirma que las vacunas provocan autismo’. Los partidarios de Donald Trump asumían la afirmación con una convicción plena cuando llevaba el nombre de su ídolo político. Al hacerles comprender su inconsistencia, rectificaban, pero unas semanas después, tras volver a plantearles la cuestión, de nuevo creían ciegamente en las palabras de Trump. El estudio de Swire-Thompson documenta, como concluye Yudhijit Bhattacharjee en National Geographic, “la ineficacia de la información”. Y esto es lo que inquieta ante mentiras como la campaña de Podemos sobre el Procés. No que mientan con un descaro equivalente al de Trump sobre las vacunas, sino que hay cinco millones de almas dispuestos a creer aquello que enarbolen Iglesias y sus pretorianos.!

Some comments:

1  There were not 2000 people in the study [2] (by Briony Swire and three other authors, although the writer in EP writes Briony Swire-Thompson and mentions her only), there were 247 left out of the analysis for their not having political label or not doing the tasks well.

2  Of the resulting 1776, about two thirds, 1015, were democrats and about a third, 535, republicans. It would be more representative to have something close to what really happened in the election.

3  To compound more the sample's low quality, of those 535 Republicans, only 323 are Trump supporters. There are also 99 democrats who supported Trump. So, to summarize, of about 2000 people they tell us were part of the study, 422 are Trump supporters and 1127 are Trump non-supporters (non-supporters are more than 2.5 times the supporters).

4  Also, people of more age are more skeptical and have better detectors of misinformation [3], but these older people were excluded to an unknown rate because the subjects were recruited via Amazon's Mechanical Turk, which excludes access to lots of people above 55 that do not handle computers well enough.

5  Those people were not presented only, as it is suggested, with a couple of absurd quotes, but a total of eight statements, four misinformation quotes attributed to Trump (I didn't very what he said and what not), and four true statements attributed to him (again, I didn't verify those).

Also, the article [1] plainly says that the ones with problems were the Trump supporters. But non-supporters do the same, see 8.1 below.

6  I dare to say that all the misinformation quotes were debatable and could be supported to some degree (the Trump supporters were not idiots, and were relatively rational), and all statements deemed as true could be debated too (the non-supporters were not idiots nor robots, but relatively rational too).

7  The author of the Spanish piece of reporting editorial writing is in a deep state of shock with the guys he "studies," which are Podemos and the "souls" that support the party, making use of sentences like "The lies said on purpose by" ("Las mentiras deliberadas de"), "it crosses the red lines" ("cruza todas las líneas"), "they made it up" ("se inventa"), "they blatantly lie with a cheekiness like that of Trump" ("que mientan con un descaro equivalente al de Trump"), "in this case it is amazing the scale and cold pragmatism" ("sorprende en este caso [...] la escala y el pragmatismo frío"), "they crossed all the red lines" ("Han cruzado todas las líneas rojas"), cadres of the group are praetorians ("pretorianos"), etc.

All this "lingua florentis" (pardon the bad declination) is not printed with bad purposes... Both his side and Podemos' side are well-intentioned (a small part in each side is completely cynical and devoted only to their stomachs, but we cannot know who they are   :-)   ).

8  The real lessons of what we know and of the article [1] and the paper [2] are, IMHO, these:

8.1  most Republican supporters in the sample believed all or most the statements attributed to Trump, AND (I am sure that to great surprise of the EP newspaper's readers and editors) most democrats and other non-supporters in the study believed not a single one or almost none when attributed to Trump (to varying degrees, of course, depending on the question) [2].

Applied to the writer in EP, he is doing the same that his enemies do. All with a good aim.

Making a caricature of themselves, the author and editors of EP behave as the infamous Trump and his supporters, unknown to them that they are like the other half of paper [2], real believers in a cause, regardless of reason and reasons.


8.2  this Spanish newspaper and the contributor's hit piece is one more proof of this characterization: most newspapers are, more than not, strongly politicized and partial, IMHO; the contributors are mostly sincere but write to earn a living and exaggerate statements to make themselves more acceptable to readers and editors, guaranteeing their continued publishing or enhancing their reputation (most of the reputation is of use only in our own circles, but some is of use to build among the enemy the image of a formidable fighter); and readers select what supports their views, held before finding articles in support of those views [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].

8.3  IMHO, this piece of propaganda is created and published by the panic author and editors feel believing that propaganda (that of the enemy, since one do not do such things :-) ) works [10, 11, 12, 13]. The author and the editors believe that they need to balance the statements made by the enemy, even at the cost of publishing very weak propaganda themselves.

8.4  in the end, all this doesn't work... We first have sentiments/feelings, and then read mostly those things that confirm our feelings. So Trump or Clinton supporters use most of the time finding excuses in the data to attack and counter-attack the others, but they cannot change opinion  [4, 14] unless enough time passes and enough discrediting information appears.


9  Final considerations to make sense of the discussion about truth, post-truth, untruth, etc.:

9.1  We all use misleading statements all the time (not to speak of lottery vendors, who promise to win the prize if one buys their tickets)

9.2  But we are not monsters, it is supposed that those hearing or reading us will have enough brains to separate banter, exaggeration, excessively condensed information, etc., from slightly false statements by accidental reasons, a little more than slightly-false statements, those that are mostly false but were not intented to be so, and those blantant lies made public on purpose to denigrate others or to attack positions.

So, when one say "vaccines cause autism," he is not saying "if one duplicates doses, there are twice autism patients," but that autism incidence increases somewhat, to a not well determined degree. When one says "vaccines do not cause harm," one is not saying that there are not health problems (and even deaths) due to vaccination, but that the harm is 1  unintentional and 2  very, very small relative to the enormous amounts of vaccines deployed.

My last line is to ask for calm and moderation. We all say things that are not right, and most of the time our intention is good or at least neutral. Let's not take things in the worst possible light.

--
Notes

[1]  Teodoro León: Las mentiras deliberadas de Podemos. El País, Oct 22 2017. https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/10/21/opinion/1508608410_870485.html

[2]  Processing political misinformation: comprehending the Trump phenomenon. Briony Swire, Adam J. Berinsky, Stephan Lewandowsky, Ullrich K. H. Ecker. Royal Society Open Science, published on-line March 01 2017. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160802, http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/3/160802

[3]  Competing cues: Older adults rely on knowledge in the face of fluency. By Brashier, Nadia M.; Umanath, Sharda; Cabeza, Roberto; Marsh, Elizabeth J. Psychology and Aging, Vol 32(4), Jun 2017, 331-337. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/07/competing-cues-older-adults-rely-on.html

[4]  Stanley, M. L., Dougherty, A. M., Yang, B. W., Henne, P., & De Brigard, F. (2017). Reasons Probably Won’t Change Your Mind: The Role of Reasons in Revising Moral Decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/reasons-probably-wont-change-your-mind.html

[5]  Science Denial Across the Political Divide -- Liberals and Conservatives Are Similarly Motivated to Deny Attitude-Inconsistent Science. Anthony N. Washburn, Linda J. Skitka. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10.1177/1948550617731500. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/liberals-and-conservatives-are.html

[6]  Biased Policy Professionals. Sheheryar Banuri, Stefan Dercon, and Varun Gauri. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 8113. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/biased-policy-professionals-world-bank.html

[7]  Dispelling the Myth: Training in Education or Neuroscience Decreases but Does Not Eliminate Beliefs in Neuromyths. Kelly Macdonald et al. Frontiers in Psychology, Aug 10 2017. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/training-in-education-or-neuroscience.html

[8]  Individuals with greater science literacy and education have more polarized beliefs on controversial science topics. Caitlin Drummond and Baruch Fischhoff. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 114 no. 36, pp 9587–9592, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1704882114, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/individuals-with-greater-science.html

[9]  Expert ability can actually impair the accuracy of expert perception when judging others' performance: Adaptation and fallibility in experts' judgments of novice performers. By Larson, J. S., & Billeter, D. M. (2017). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(2), 271–288. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/06/expert-ability-can-actually-impair.html

[10]  Public Perceptions of Partisan Selective Exposure. Perryman, Mallory R. The University of Wisconsin - Madison, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2017. 10607943. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/citizens-believe-others-especially.html

[11]  The Myth of Partisan Selective Exposure: A Portrait of the Online Political News Audience. Jacob L. Nelson, and James G. Webster. Social Media + Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/the-myth-of-partisan-selective-exposure.html

[12]  Echo Chamber? What Echo Chamber? Reviewing the Evidence. Axel Bruns. Future of Journalism 2017 Conference. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/echo-chamber-what-echo-chamber.html

[13]  Fake news and post-truth pronouncements in general and in early human development. Victor Grech. Early Human Development, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/fake-news-and-post-truth-pronouncements.html

[14]  Consumption of fake news is a consequence, not a cause of their readers’ voting preferences
Kahan, Dan M., Misinformation and Identity-Protective Cognition (October 2, 2017). Social Science Research Network, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/consumption-of-fake-news-is-consequence.html

While cannabis users appear to demonstrate enhanced creativity, these effects are an artifact of their heightened openness levels

Inspired by Mary Jane? Mechanisms underlying enhanced creativity in cannabis users. Emily M. LaFrance, Carrie Cuttler. Consciousness and Cognition, Volume 56, November 2017, Pages 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.10.009

Highlights
•    Sober cannabis users showed enhanced self-reported creativity to non-users.
•    Sober cannabis users demonstrated superior convergent thinking ability to non-users.
•    Cannabis users were more extraverted, open to experience and less conscientious.
•    Differences in openness to experience explained cannabis users’ enhanced creativity.

Abstract: Previous research suggests cannabis may enhance some aspects of creativity, although the results remain somewhat equivocal. Moreover, it is unclear whether differences in cannabis users’ personalities may account for any potentially beneficial effects of cannabis on creativity. This study was designed to examine whether sober cannabis users demonstrate superior self-reported and objective creativity test performance relative to non-users, and to determine whether any of the Big 5 personality domains underlie these effects. A sample of sober cannabis users (n = 412) and non-users (n = 309) completed measures of cannabis consumption, personality, self-reported and objective creativity. Relative to non-users, sober cannabis users self-reported higher creativity, and performed significantly better on a measure of convergent thinking. Controlling for cannabis users’ higher levels of openness to experience abolished these effects. Therefore, while cannabis users appear to demonstrate enhanced creativity, these effects are an artifact of their heightened levels of openness to experience.

Keywords: Cannabis; Creativity; Divergent thinking; Convergent thinking; Openness to experience; Big 5 personality

Those who monitored their heart rate using a wearable tracker had lower belief in free will

Wearables and User Interface Design: Impacts on Belief in Free Will. D. A. Baker. In: International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction HCI 2017 – Posters' Extended Abstracts pp 210-217, Conference paper. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-58750-9_30

Abstract: This research investigates the social implications of sensor driven self-quantification technologies designed to direct user behaviors. These self-sensoring prescriptive applications (SSPA’s), often referred to as “wearables,” have a strong presence in healthcare as a means to monitor and improve health, modify behavior, and reduce medical costs. However, the commercial sector is quickly adopting SSPA’s to monitor and/or modify consumer behaviors as well [1, 2, 3]. Interestingly, the direct impact biosensor data have on user decision making, attitude formation, and behavior has not been well researched. SSPA’s offer an opportunity for users to monitor the “self” in terms of quantitative, objective, biological terms that may be beyond the user’s control. Research suggests some states of the body (e.g. chronic pain, hunger) can affect underlying beliefs in free will (BFW), finding that the less control a person has over those physical states, the weaker their BFW [4]. It is not known, however, whether reminders about physical states of the body, such as heart rate monitors used during exercise, may also serve to reduce BFW. This is an important gap in knowledge when considering that reduced BFW can have numerous negative impacts on individual behavior [5, 6, 7]. This preliminary work examined the impact of such technologies on underlying BFW. Participants who monitored their heart rate during a short walk using a wearable heart rate and activity tracker had lower BFW than participants who merely look at the device’s various tracking features and participants in the control condition.

Women enjoy talking more than men, enjoyment mediated by life history strategy

Individual differences in talking enjoyment: The roles of life history strategy and mate value. Shelia M. Kennison et al. Cogent Psychology, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23311908.2017.1395310

Abstract: The present research explored the possibility that individual differences in talking enjoyment may play a role in human reproduction, such as mate advertising in humans. Prior research on talking has tended to focus on sex differences in the amount of talking. We present a new self-report measure to assess individual differences in talking enjoyment and explore its relationships with self-perceived mate value and life history strategy, which we measured using Figueredo et al.’s (2006) Mini-K. In Study 1, we assessed talking enjoyment with an 11-item talking enjoyment questionnaire (TEQ) and found that a) women’s average talking enjoyment and Mini-K ratings were significantly higher than men’s; b) talking enjoyment was predicted by life history strategy as measured by and self-rated mate value; and c) the relationship between sex and talking enjoyment was mediated by life history strategy. In Study 2, we replicated the results of Study 1 with a revised 8-item talking enjoyment questionnaire after confirming its test-retest reliability. The results provide new insights into individual differences in talking enjoyment. Directions for future research on the relationship talking behavior and mate selection in humans are discussed.

Keywords: talking, life history strategy, mate value, sex differences

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We also explored the possibility that individual differences in talking behavior would be related to individuals’ life history strategy, which has been used to describe differences in individuals’ reproductive behaviors. Life history strategy is a core concept within life history theory (MacArthur & Wilson, 1967) in which different species or different individuals within species  can be described as having a fast life history (i.e., r type), having shorter lives, shorter periods of development, higher numbers of offspring with higher mortality rates, and usually devoting time and resources into current versus future reproductive activities or a slow life history (i.e., K type), having longer lives, longer periods of development, seeking long-term versus short-term mates, and producing fewer, but potentially more robust offspring.

Descriptions of the life history strategy in humans have noted that individuals vary in terms of environmental stability and resources (Chisholm, 1993; Roff, 2002; Trivers, 1972), resulting in some individuals having a faster life history (i.e., less stability and fewer resources) and others having a slower life history (i.e., more stability and more resources). Figueredo, Vásquez, Brumbach, and Schneider (2004) suggest that people with a slower life history strategy delay mating and invest effort, time, and resources into social mobility, which improves the odds of long-term survival for both the individual and their future children. We reasoned that individuals with longer life history strategies may enjoy talking more because talking may promote the formation of social bonds both in and outside of the family (Bluck & Alea, 2009).

[...]

Other research has found that there is a relationship between life history strategy and self-perceived mate value (Dillon, Adair, Wang, & Johnson, 2013). Dillon et al. (2013) recruited heterosexual, monogamous couples and assessed their life history strategies. Each individual in the couple provided ratings of their own and their partner’s mate value using both the mate value inventory (Fisher, Cox, Bennett & Gavric, 2008) and a task that involving rating physical attractiveness. The results showed that individuals with slower life history strategy rated themselves and their partners higher in mate value than others. Attractiveness ratings were also higher for individuals with a slower life history strategy.

[...]

Our results from both studies are consistent with Figueredo et al.’s (2004) proposal that those with a slower life history strategy invest in activities related to social mobility, which would typically involve talking as a means of forming new social relationships. Talking to others is likely to be an important way for individuals not only to meet a greater number of potential mates, but also be a way to gain social status. Taken together the two findings support suggestions from prior research that language may be used in mate advertising (Redhead & Dunbar, 2013; Gersick & Kurzban, 2014; Miller, 1997, 1998; 1999). The results are also compatible with Rosenberg and Tunney (2008)’s view that what people say, specifically the choice of vocabulary, may reflect the intelligence of the speaker and function as a fitness cue, which can be used for mate selection.

We do not believe that the present results should be interpreted as indicating that people are always consciously aware that their talking behavior functions to advertise their value as a prospective mate. In some cases, individuals may purposely engage in overt demonstrations of mate advertising (i.e., flirting); however, it may be the case that the general tendency to be talkative serves the individuals’ reproductive activities without awareness on the part of the individual.

Check also:  Gossip as an Intrasexual Competition Strategy: Sex Differences in Gossip Frequency, Content, and Attitudes. Adam C. Davis. Evolutionary Psychological Science, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/gossip-as-intrasexual-competition.html

And: What Shall We Talk about in Farsi? Content of Everyday Conversations in Iran. Mahdi Dahmardeh, R. I. M. Dunbar. Human Nature, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/content-of-everyday-conversations-in.html. Pay attention to the table there.

Study on a Christian Chinese sample: sense of self-worth, well-being and locus of control

Study on a Christian Chinese sample: sense of self-worth, well-being and locus of control. Fei Wu, Qin Gong & Yanqing Dai.  Mental Health, Religion & Culture, Volume 20, 2017 - Issue 3, Pages 239-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2017.1338680

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to explore Chinese Christians’ sense of self-worth, well-being, locus of control and the correlations between these variables. One hundred and two Chinese Christians with a range of 18–40 years old were surveyed by the Scale of Self-worth, Chinese version of General Well-Being Scale and internal–external Locus of Control Scale. A control group of 134 Chinese non-Christians participated in the same survey. Christians scored lower on locus of control and higher on self-worth than the non-Christians. No significant general well-being difference was between the Christian and non-Christian samples. The correlations were significant between locus of control and self-worth/general well-being (negative) and between self-worth and general well-being (positive). Results suggest that Christians experience better self-worth and tend to be internals on locus of control.

KEYWORDS: Christians, Locus of Control, sense of self-worth, general well-being

In a realistic scenario, when women see an attractive potential partner, time slows. Opposite for men.

Time slows down whenever you are around for women but not for men. Margarida Rosa Pinho. Thesis, University of the Minho. Jul 2017. https://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/handle/1822/46685

Astract: What happens when we unexpectedly see an attractive potential partner? Previous studies in laboratorial settings suggest that the visualization of attractive and unattractive photographs influences time. The major aim of this research is to study time perception and attraction in a realistic social scenario, by investigating if changes in subjective time measured during a speed dating are associated with attraction. In the event, the duration of the dates was variable and participants had to estimate the time that passed. Among other measures, participants also rated the potential partners in terms of their physical attractiveness before and after the dates and reported if they would like to exchange contact with them. Results showed that, in a real speed dating situation, when there is a perception of the partner as being physically more attractive, women tend to overestimate the duration of that meeting, whereas men tend to underestimate its duration. Such changes may reflect evolutionary adaptations which make the human cognitive system more responsive in situations related to reproductive fitness.

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More specifically, our results showed that the more females rated a potential partner as
physically attractive, the longer they perceived the duration of the date. That goes along with
the popular idea that “time slows down whenever you are around” (Swift, 2010). This may be
due to a bigger allocation of women’s cognitive resources to process more information of the
meeting (Loftus, Schooler, Boone, & Kline, 1987) and of the potential partner they are
interested in. More specifically, even though physical attractiveness is important in a potential partner, for women there are other characteristics that have a higher value, such as good economic perspectives (Buss & Barnes, 1986; Bech-Sørensen & Pollet, 2016). Therefore, searching for cues of positive traits in a potential mate requires the use of cognitive resources. Besides that, research has shown that when women perceived the partner as attractive, they tend to be more motivated to make a good impression on the partner and pay more attention to the things they say that might influence this impression (Dong & Wyer, 2014). According to Ornstein’s storage size model (1969), when people store more information in memory, they tend to perceive the duration of that interval of time as being longer. Furthermore, women may consider the experience with a partner who they consider physically attractive as positive in an emotional view. This result is also consistent with that study of Kellaris and Kent (1992) in which time did seems to slow downs when participants were exposed to positively balanced music, compared to participants exposed to negatively balanced music. The authors suggested that when people receive positive emotional information they tend to pay more cognitive resources to listening to music. Therefore, they tend to perceive the received stimulus information as bigger and remember the event as being longer (Ornstein, 1969). Besides that, a study conducted by Zhang, Zhang, Yu, Liu and Luo (2017) showed a reliable sex differences in temporal distortion with an emotional stimulus. Women, compared to men, tended to overestimated the durations presented in lexico-semantic level using emotional words.

However, for men, our results showed that time does not seems to slow down whenever someone attractive is around. In fact, the more males rated a female participant as physically attractive, the shorter they perceived the duration of the speed date. This seems to be consistent with the idea that “time flies when you are having fun”. Research has shown that men’s preferences for potential mates are based mostly in physical attractiveness (Todd, Penke, Fasolo, & Lenton, 2007). Therefore, when they have a meeting with a potential partner that they perceive as being physically attractive, they do not need to spend much cognitive resources searching for other cues, feeling automatically motivate to be with her. Consequently, they will tend to estimate the time that passed as being shorter. This result also suggests that time perception in males during the dates may be affected by motivation because, according to previous literature, positive approach motivation causes the perception of time to be shorter (Gable & Poole, 2012). Besides that, the subjective perception of the passage of time seems to be an important component to evaluate the experience of boredom (Danckert & Allman, 2005). So, when males are interested and motivated in the date with a physical attractive potential partner, they tend to estimate the date duration as shorter and, on the other hand, this time underestimation reinforces the perception of an interesting date (Sackett, Meyvis, Nelson, Converse, & Sackett, 2010). Underestimate the duration of the date may prolong approach-motivated behaviour (Gable & Poole, 2012) and this increases the probability of a successful mating. On time, Einstein said “Put your hand on a hot stove for a minute and it seems like an hour. Sit with a pretty girl for an hour, and it seems like a minute”.

According to Trivers (1972) theory, the relative parental investment of the sexes in their offspring is the key variable controlling the operation of sexual selection. A sexual intercourse that for a male is a reduced investment, for a female can produce a 9-month investment. For a female, this investment requires more choosiness in the partner choice. Besides that, prior research showed that females tend to be more selective (Kurzban & Weeden, 2005) and more discriminating (Todd, Penke, Fasolo, & Lenton, 2007) than males. Therefore, it is expected that females allocate more attention to capture a greater number of characteristics of the potential partner in addition to physical attractiveness, such as intelligence, earning prospect and other signs suggesting he could be good partner in the future. This process seems to imply an exhaustive evaluation in the first meeting which required spending a lot of cognitive resources. On the other hand, men are attracted for less characteristics of the partner compared to females (Luo & Zhang, 2009). So, males do not waste so much energy and resources in cognitive processing of information and focus more energy in having fun with the partners they perceived as being more attractive. Such changes may reflect evolutionary adaptations which make the human cognitive system more responsive in situations related to reproductive fitness. Williams (2012) suggested that sex differences in timing might be due to the effects of circulating estrogen in adult females versus testosterone in adult males. Besides that, gonadal hormones had been found to influence sexual motivation (Wallen, 2001). In men, testosterone increases interest in a woman, engagement in self-presentation, smiling and making eye contact. (Meij, Almela, Buunk, Fawcett & Salvador, 2011). Meij, Almela, Buunk, Fawcett and Salvador (2011) suggested that during encounters with the opposite sex, testosterone may promote the display of affiliative behaviours that increase a man’s mating prospects and during social contact with a potential partner testosterone is linked to the initiation of courtship behaviours. On the other hand, in women estradiol seems to be a significant positive predictor of sexual desire (Roney & Simmons, 2013).