Merit or luck - An interpretation of people’s beliefs from an economic perspective. Karen Høgholen. May 11th 2018, Master of Philosophy in Economics, Department of Economics, University of Oslo, https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/63119/7/H-gholen-Karen.pdf
Abstract: This thesis studies the tendency people seem to have to belittle the role of luck in life outcomes, especially in the aftermath of success. Translating high income and high state of health to reflect sings of success, I analyse whether having high income or high state of health affects the proneness to believe, that income or health is achieved mainly trough own actions rather than luck. Beliefs around luck are noted to be affecting preferences over redistribution, and this aspect is explored by investigating the relationship between beliefs about societal versus individual responsibility over drug addiction problems. Ordered and binary logistic regression models are constructed to inspect the relationship between beliefs and belief determining predictors, utilising data from a Norwegian survey scanning people’s opinions around drug addiction and responsibility. The main findings suggest that having higher income does not significantly increase the tendency to believe that income is deserved due to effort. Whereas in the case of health, higher self reported state of health seems to increase the tendency to associate bad health with bad habits and lifestyle choices. For the aspect of beliefs about redistribution, it seems like the more the cause of an addiction is related to individual responsibility, the higher is the tendency to think that the addiction problem remains to be solved by the individual himself, rather than being something the society should be responsible for. The role of beliefs in economic theory in general, and what implications beliefs around luck and control have in a policy context is discussed. Parts of an economic model of belief forming mechanisms by Benabou and Tirole (2006), is also presented as an inspiration for the overall themes discussed in this thesis.
Sunday, September 2, 2018
Saturday, September 1, 2018
The gender gap in risk-taking among the most competent students reduced the odds that high-ability women received top exam scores, creating gender inequality in outcomes among top performers
Who’s on Top?: Gender Differences in Risk-Taking Produce Unequal Outcomes for High-Ability Women and Men. Susan R. Fisk. Social Psychology Quarterly, https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272518796512
Abstract: Research shows that men are more likely to take risks than women, but there is scant evidence that this produces gender inequality. To address this gap, I analyzed engineering exam scores that used an unusual grading procedure. I found small average gender differences in risk-taking that did not produce gendered outcomes for students of average or poor ability. But the gender gap in risk-taking among the most competent students reduced the odds that high-ability women received top exam scores. These results demonstrate that gender differences in risk-taking can produce gender inequality in outcomes among top performers. This suggests that the upward mobility of high-ability women may be depressed relative to equally competent men in male-typed institutional settings in which outcomes are influenced by both ability and risk-taking. In this manner, these results provide new insights into the microlevel social-psychological processes that produce and reproduce gender inequality.
Keywords: gender, gender inequality, mobility, risk-taking, work
Abstract: Research shows that men are more likely to take risks than women, but there is scant evidence that this produces gender inequality. To address this gap, I analyzed engineering exam scores that used an unusual grading procedure. I found small average gender differences in risk-taking that did not produce gendered outcomes for students of average or poor ability. But the gender gap in risk-taking among the most competent students reduced the odds that high-ability women received top exam scores. These results demonstrate that gender differences in risk-taking can produce gender inequality in outcomes among top performers. This suggests that the upward mobility of high-ability women may be depressed relative to equally competent men in male-typed institutional settings in which outcomes are influenced by both ability and risk-taking. In this manner, these results provide new insights into the microlevel social-psychological processes that produce and reproduce gender inequality.
Keywords: gender, gender inequality, mobility, risk-taking, work
Civil inattention: Even when action has been taken to clean it up, plastic bags filled with dog droppings have been thrown onto the ground in certain carefully selected spots or even hung up in trees or displayed on fence posts or railings
Gross, Mathias, Horta, Ana (2017). Dog shit happens: human–canine interactions and the immediacy of excremental presence. In Bradley H. Brewster and Antony J. Puddephatt (Eds.), Microsociological Perspectives for Environmental Sociology, pp. 143-160. London & New York: Routledge. http://hdl.handle.net/10451/26761
Abstract: When it comes to a human’s best friend it seems Western societies turn a blind eye to practices that fail to meet their usually high standards of everyday hygiene. This chapter will explore practices related to canine excrement and the micro-interactionist strategies deployed by dog owners and non-owners to cope with it. We present here the results of our own observations of the habitual behavior of dog-walkers at various times of the day in various settings, mainly in Germany and Portugal – the authors’ respective countries of residence – but also report on similar observations made in Poland, France, Belgium, Britain, and Japan. Our account is also based on our own experiences of dog walking and engaging in the removal of excrement. We draw additionally on a number of informal conversations with dog owners and non-owners on such topics, including the techniques used to deal with excrement, as well as reports and discussions published online. In thus exploring the ways dog waste is removed, we try and solve the riddle of why, in some cases, even when action has been taken to clean it up, plastic bags filled with dog droppings have been thrown onto the ground in certain carefully selected spots or even hung up in trees or displayed on fence posts or railings. The chapter will present inquiries into micro-forms of interactional behavior and dog walking and pooping practices. Some of these strategies will be accounted for as qualitatively new forms of what Erving Goffman (1971) once referred to as civil inattention. Thus, we explore the logic of civil inattention by focusing on what might be called “poop on display.”
Abstract: When it comes to a human’s best friend it seems Western societies turn a blind eye to practices that fail to meet their usually high standards of everyday hygiene. This chapter will explore practices related to canine excrement and the micro-interactionist strategies deployed by dog owners and non-owners to cope with it. We present here the results of our own observations of the habitual behavior of dog-walkers at various times of the day in various settings, mainly in Germany and Portugal – the authors’ respective countries of residence – but also report on similar observations made in Poland, France, Belgium, Britain, and Japan. Our account is also based on our own experiences of dog walking and engaging in the removal of excrement. We draw additionally on a number of informal conversations with dog owners and non-owners on such topics, including the techniques used to deal with excrement, as well as reports and discussions published online. In thus exploring the ways dog waste is removed, we try and solve the riddle of why, in some cases, even when action has been taken to clean it up, plastic bags filled with dog droppings have been thrown onto the ground in certain carefully selected spots or even hung up in trees or displayed on fence posts or railings. The chapter will present inquiries into micro-forms of interactional behavior and dog walking and pooping practices. Some of these strategies will be accounted for as qualitatively new forms of what Erving Goffman (1971) once referred to as civil inattention. Thus, we explore the logic of civil inattention by focusing on what might be called “poop on display.”
Friday, August 31, 2018
Populations of lateral entorhinal cortex neurons represent time inherently through the encoding of experience: this may be integrated with spatial inputs from the medial entorhinal cortex in the hippocampus, storing a unified representation of what, where and when
Integrating time from experience in the lateral entorhinal cortex. Albert Tsao, Jørgen Sugar, Li Lu, Cheng Wang, James J. Knierim, May-Britt Moser & Edvard I. Moser. Nature (2018), https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0459-6
Abstract: The encoding of time and its binding to events are crucial for episodic memory, but how these processes are carried out in hippocampal–entorhinal circuits is unclear. Here we show in freely foraging rats that temporal information is robustly encoded across time scales from seconds to hours within the overall population state of the lateral entorhinal cortex. Similarly pronounced encoding of time was not present in the medial entorhinal cortex or in hippocampal areas CA3–CA1. When animals’ experiences were constrained by behavioural tasks to become similar across repeated trials, the encoding of temporal flow across trials was reduced, whereas the encoding of time relative to the start of trials was improved. The findings suggest that populations of lateral entorhinal cortex neurons represent time inherently through the encoding of experience. This representation of episodic time may be integrated with spatial inputs from the medial entorhinal cortex in the hippocampus, allowing the hippocampus to store a unified representation of what, where and when.
Abstract: The encoding of time and its binding to events are crucial for episodic memory, but how these processes are carried out in hippocampal–entorhinal circuits is unclear. Here we show in freely foraging rats that temporal information is robustly encoded across time scales from seconds to hours within the overall population state of the lateral entorhinal cortex. Similarly pronounced encoding of time was not present in the medial entorhinal cortex or in hippocampal areas CA3–CA1. When animals’ experiences were constrained by behavioural tasks to become similar across repeated trials, the encoding of temporal flow across trials was reduced, whereas the encoding of time relative to the start of trials was improved. The findings suggest that populations of lateral entorhinal cortex neurons represent time inherently through the encoding of experience. This representation of episodic time may be integrated with spatial inputs from the medial entorhinal cortex in the hippocampus, allowing the hippocampus to store a unified representation of what, where and when.
Seen a widening gap between star firms (defined as those in top 10% of return on invested capital in any year) & the rest of the economy over time, especially in industries that rely on a skilled labor force, until you measure well intangible capital
Ayyagari, Meghana and Demirgüç-Kunt, Asli and Maksimovic, Vojislav, Who are America's Star Firms? (August 13, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3230154
Abstract: There is widespread concern about a growing gap between top-performing publicly listed firms and the rest of the economy and the implications of this for rising inequality in the U.S. Using conventional return calculations, there is indeed a widening gap between star firms (defined as those in top 10% of return on invested capital in any year) and the rest of the economy over time, especially in industries that rely on a skilled labor force. However, once measurement error in intangible capital is accounted for, this gap shrinks dramatically and has not been widening over time. While pricing power, as measured by markups, predicts star firm status, a large fraction of star firms have low markups and there is no evidence that star firms are cutting output or investment more than other firms for the same markup. The effect of star status is persistent. Five years later, star firms have higher growth, pro ts, and Tobin's Q. A small subset of exceptional firms may pose more pressing policy concerns with much higher returns and the potential to exercise market power in the future.
Keywords: star firms, intangible capital, organizational capital, industry concentration, ROIC, capital expenditure
JEL Classification: G30, G31, G32, L22, L23, L25
Abstract: There is widespread concern about a growing gap between top-performing publicly listed firms and the rest of the economy and the implications of this for rising inequality in the U.S. Using conventional return calculations, there is indeed a widening gap between star firms (defined as those in top 10% of return on invested capital in any year) and the rest of the economy over time, especially in industries that rely on a skilled labor force. However, once measurement error in intangible capital is accounted for, this gap shrinks dramatically and has not been widening over time. While pricing power, as measured by markups, predicts star firm status, a large fraction of star firms have low markups and there is no evidence that star firms are cutting output or investment more than other firms for the same markup. The effect of star status is persistent. Five years later, star firms have higher growth, pro ts, and Tobin's Q. A small subset of exceptional firms may pose more pressing policy concerns with much higher returns and the potential to exercise market power in the future.
Keywords: star firms, intangible capital, organizational capital, industry concentration, ROIC, capital expenditure
JEL Classification: G30, G31, G32, L22, L23, L25
We knew that people search for balance in moral behavior such that they feel licensed to behave less morally after a previous moral act (licensing) & cleanse previous morally questionable behaviors by subsequently behaving more morally (cleansing)
Taking Close Others’ Environmental Behavior Into Account When Striking the Moral Balance? Evidence for Vicarious Licensing, Not for Vicarious Cleansing. Marijn H. C. Meijers et al. Environment and Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518773148
Abstract: Research shows that people search for balance in their moral (e.g., environmentally friendly) behaviors such that they feel licensed to behave less morally after a previous moral act (licensing) and cleanse previous morally questionable behaviors by subsequently behaving more morally (cleansing). This article investigates whether this balancing may extend to close others, but not to nonclose others, and tests vicarious licensing and cleansing in the environmental domain. Study 1 showed that vicarious licensing effects are more likely when a close other displayed environmentally friendly (vs. neutral) behavior. Study 2 showed that environmental vicarious licensing effects are more likely for close than nonclose others. Studies 3 and 4 suggested that vicarious licensing effects, but not vicarious cleansing effects are more likely for close (vs. nonclose) others. Finally, a meta-analysis showed that overall these studies provide evidence for vicarious licensing effects, but not for vicarious cleansing effects in the environmental domain.
Keywords: environmentally friendly, licensing, cleansing, vicarious, self–other overlap, morality
Abstract: Research shows that people search for balance in their moral (e.g., environmentally friendly) behaviors such that they feel licensed to behave less morally after a previous moral act (licensing) and cleanse previous morally questionable behaviors by subsequently behaving more morally (cleansing). This article investigates whether this balancing may extend to close others, but not to nonclose others, and tests vicarious licensing and cleansing in the environmental domain. Study 1 showed that vicarious licensing effects are more likely when a close other displayed environmentally friendly (vs. neutral) behavior. Study 2 showed that environmental vicarious licensing effects are more likely for close than nonclose others. Studies 3 and 4 suggested that vicarious licensing effects, but not vicarious cleansing effects are more likely for close (vs. nonclose) others. Finally, a meta-analysis showed that overall these studies provide evidence for vicarious licensing effects, but not for vicarious cleansing effects in the environmental domain.
Keywords: environmentally friendly, licensing, cleansing, vicarious, self–other overlap, morality
We ask whether people in a strategic situation follow the Golden Rule, that is, do not treat others in ways that they find disagreeable to themselves; over three quarters of the experiments' subjects do so
Role-Reversal Consistency: An Experimental Study of the Golden Rule. Miguel A. Costa‐Gomes, Yuan Ju, Jiawen Li. Economic Inquiry, https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12708
Abstract: We report an experiment that asks whether people in a strategic situation behave according to the Golden Rule, that is, do not treat others in ways that they find disagreeable to themselves, a property that we call role‐reversal consistency. Overall, we find that over three quarters of the subjects are role‐reversal consistent. Regression analysis suggests that this finding is not driven by players maximizing their subjective expected monetary earnings given their stated beliefs about their opponents' behavior. We find that subjects' stated beliefs and actions reveal mild projection bias. (JEL C78, C91)
Abstract: We report an experiment that asks whether people in a strategic situation behave according to the Golden Rule, that is, do not treat others in ways that they find disagreeable to themselves, a property that we call role‐reversal consistency. Overall, we find that over three quarters of the subjects are role‐reversal consistent. Regression analysis suggests that this finding is not driven by players maximizing their subjective expected monetary earnings given their stated beliefs about their opponents' behavior. We find that subjects' stated beliefs and actions reveal mild projection bias. (JEL C78, C91)
Thursday, August 30, 2018
Jerkies, tacos, burgers: individuals low on subjective socioeconomic status have a greater preference for meat, effect driven by a desire for status & not by felt hunger or power, & not generalizable to plant foods
Jerkies, tacos, and burgers: Subjective socioeconomic status and meat preference. Eugene Y. Chan, Natalina Zlatevska. Appetite, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2018.08.027
Abstract: In mankind's evolutionary past, those who consumed meat were strong and powerful and thus man saw meat as indicative of social status. This symbolic connection between meat and status persists today. Thus, based upon psychological theories of compensation, individuals low on subjective socioeconomic status (SES) should have a greater preference for meat, as meat may be substitutable for the status that they lack. Three experiments tested this premise. Participants who felt low on subjective SES preferred meat-based foods compared to participants who felt high on it (Experiment 1). The effect is driven by a desire for status (Experiments 2–3) and not by felt hunger or power (Experiments 1–2) and not generalizable to plant foods (Experiment 3). The results suggest a symbolic link between meat and status, which has intriguingly not yet been empirically shown, and we also demonstrate a consequence of the link for food preference. The results may be of use for doctors who advise eating less meat to improve physical health and for environmental advocates who argue that meat consumption exacerbates global warming. We will also discuss the contributions of and further avenues based on our work.
Abstract: In mankind's evolutionary past, those who consumed meat were strong and powerful and thus man saw meat as indicative of social status. This symbolic connection between meat and status persists today. Thus, based upon psychological theories of compensation, individuals low on subjective socioeconomic status (SES) should have a greater preference for meat, as meat may be substitutable for the status that they lack. Three experiments tested this premise. Participants who felt low on subjective SES preferred meat-based foods compared to participants who felt high on it (Experiment 1). The effect is driven by a desire for status (Experiments 2–3) and not by felt hunger or power (Experiments 1–2) and not generalizable to plant foods (Experiment 3). The results suggest a symbolic link between meat and status, which has intriguingly not yet been empirically shown, and we also demonstrate a consequence of the link for food preference. The results may be of use for doctors who advise eating less meat to improve physical health and for environmental advocates who argue that meat consumption exacerbates global warming. We will also discuss the contributions of and further avenues based on our work.
Participants stated their opinions about salient political issues, & we covertly altered some of their responses to indicate an opposite position; we asked to verify the manipulated responses, & only half of the manipulations were corrected by the participants
False beliefs and confabulation can lead to lasting changes in political attitudes. Strandberg T, Sivén D, Hall L, Johansson P, Pärnamets P. Journal of experimental psychology. General 147:9 2018 Sep pg 1382-1399. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-42340-004
Abstract: In times of increasing polarization and political acrimony, fueled by distrust of government and media disinformation, it is ever more important to understand the cognitive mechanisms behind political attitude change. In two experiments, we present evidence that false beliefs about one's own prior attitudes and confabulatory reasoning can lead to lasting changes in political attitudes. In Experiment 1 (N = 140), participants stated their opinions about salient political issues, and using the Choice Blindness Paradigm we covertly altered some of their responses to indicate an opposite position. In the first condition, we asked the participants to immediately verify the manipulated responses, and in the second, we also asked them to provide underlying arguments behind their attitudes. Only half of the manipulations were corrected by the participants. To measure lasting attitude change, we asked the participants to rate the same issues again later in the experiment, as well as one week after the first session. Participants in both conditions exhibited lasting shifts in attitudes, but the effect was considerably larger in the group that confabulated supporting arguments. We fully replicated these findings in Experiment 2 (N = 232). In addition, we found that participants' analytical skill correlated with their correction of the manipulation, whereas political involvement did not. This study contributes to the understanding of how confabulatory reasoning and self-perceptive processes can interact in lasting attitude change. It also highlights how political expressions can be both stable in the context of everyday life, yet flexible when argumentative processes are engaged.
Abstract: In times of increasing polarization and political acrimony, fueled by distrust of government and media disinformation, it is ever more important to understand the cognitive mechanisms behind political attitude change. In two experiments, we present evidence that false beliefs about one's own prior attitudes and confabulatory reasoning can lead to lasting changes in political attitudes. In Experiment 1 (N = 140), participants stated their opinions about salient political issues, and using the Choice Blindness Paradigm we covertly altered some of their responses to indicate an opposite position. In the first condition, we asked the participants to immediately verify the manipulated responses, and in the second, we also asked them to provide underlying arguments behind their attitudes. Only half of the manipulations were corrected by the participants. To measure lasting attitude change, we asked the participants to rate the same issues again later in the experiment, as well as one week after the first session. Participants in both conditions exhibited lasting shifts in attitudes, but the effect was considerably larger in the group that confabulated supporting arguments. We fully replicated these findings in Experiment 2 (N = 232). In addition, we found that participants' analytical skill correlated with their correction of the manipulation, whereas political involvement did not. This study contributes to the understanding of how confabulatory reasoning and self-perceptive processes can interact in lasting attitude change. It also highlights how political expressions can be both stable in the context of everyday life, yet flexible when argumentative processes are engaged.
The increased use of financial contracts to manage household risk is associated with a decline in religious adherence & smaller church congregations, a cost-benefit analysis leads households to replace their participation in social networks with lower-cost financial contracts
Cronqvist, Henrik and Warachka, Mitch and Yu, Frank, Does Finance Make Us Less Social? (July 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3229344
Abstract: Formal financial contracts and informal risk-sharing agreements within social networks both enable households to manage risk. Using an exogenous reduction in the cost of financial contracting, we find that the increased use of financial contracts to manage household risk is associated with a decline in religious adherence and smaller church congregations. These results indicate that a cost-benefit analysis leads households to replace their participation in social networks with lower-cost financial contracts. Our study contributes toward understanding the implications of emerging technologies known collectively as FinTech that lower the cost of financial contracting.
Keywords: Household Risk Management, Social Networks, FinTech
JEL Classification: G02, G28
Abstract: Formal financial contracts and informal risk-sharing agreements within social networks both enable households to manage risk. Using an exogenous reduction in the cost of financial contracting, we find that the increased use of financial contracts to manage household risk is associated with a decline in religious adherence and smaller church congregations. These results indicate that a cost-benefit analysis leads households to replace their participation in social networks with lower-cost financial contracts. Our study contributes toward understanding the implications of emerging technologies known collectively as FinTech that lower the cost of financial contracting.
Keywords: Household Risk Management, Social Networks, FinTech
JEL Classification: G02, G28
Wednesday, August 29, 2018
Voters face tradeoffs between self-interest and the common good; experiment participants are more likely to choose the policy that earns them more money, even when the policy is detrimental to the common good
Selfish and Cooperative Voting: Can the Majority Restrain Themselves? Bowen Cho, Scott Bokemper, Andrew W. Delton. Political Behavior, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-018-9495-z
Abstract: At every scale from small committees to national elections, voters face tradeoffs between self-interest and the common good. We report three experiments in which participants vote for policies with real payoffs at stake. We manipulate self-interest by randomly assigning participants to two groups in society with different policy payoffs. Participants in the majority group are confronted by a simple choice between a policy that is better for themselves or a policy that is best for society. Overall, we find a clear effect of self-interest: Participants are more likely to choose the policy that earns them more money, compared to participants in the other group, even when the policy is detrimental to the common good. Simultaneously, we observe considerable levels of cooperative voting among participants in the majority, ranging from 47% to 79% across different payoff regimes. Finally, participants were not more cooperative when voting compared to when they chose between the same policies with a lottery or leader institution, departing from the hypothesis that voting institutions promote cooperative motives. We discuss implications for multiple literatures about voting behavior.
Abstract: At every scale from small committees to national elections, voters face tradeoffs between self-interest and the common good. We report three experiments in which participants vote for policies with real payoffs at stake. We manipulate self-interest by randomly assigning participants to two groups in society with different policy payoffs. Participants in the majority group are confronted by a simple choice between a policy that is better for themselves or a policy that is best for society. Overall, we find a clear effect of self-interest: Participants are more likely to choose the policy that earns them more money, compared to participants in the other group, even when the policy is detrimental to the common good. Simultaneously, we observe considerable levels of cooperative voting among participants in the majority, ranging from 47% to 79% across different payoff regimes. Finally, participants were not more cooperative when voting compared to when they chose between the same policies with a lottery or leader institution, departing from the hypothesis that voting institutions promote cooperative motives. We discuss implications for multiple literatures about voting behavior.
Perceptions of scientific consensus do not predict later beliefs about the reality of climate change, but the inverse pathway was significant for liberals: personal beliefs about the reality of anthropogenic CC prospectively predicted subsequent estimates of consensus
Perceptions of scientific consensus do not predict later beliefs about the reality of climate change: A test of the gateway belief model using cross-lagged panel analysis. John Richard Kerr, Marc Stewart Wilson. Journal of Environmental Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.08.012
Highlights
• Study examined link between perceptions of scientific consensus and beliefs.
• Variables captured at two time points in student sample.
• Perceived consensus does not predict later personal climate beliefs.
• Beliefs predict later perceived consensus for liberal, but not conservative, voters.
Abstract: The gateway belief model posits that perceptions of scientific agreement play a causal role in shaping beliefs about the existence of anthropogenic climate change. However, experimental support for the model is mixed. The current study takes a longitudinal approach, examining the causal relationships between perceived consensus and beliefs. Perceptions of scientific consensus and personal beliefs about climate change were collected over a five-month period in a student sample (N = 356). Cross-lagged panel analysis revealed that perceived scientific consensus did not prospectively predict personal agreement with the reality of climate change, thus the current study did not find support for the gateway belief model. However, the inverse pathway was significant for those with liberal voting intentions: personal beliefs about the reality of anthropogenic climate change prospectively predicted subsequent estimates of consensus. The results suggest that individuals’ perceptions of a consensus among scientists do not have a strong influence on their personal beliefs about climate change.
Highlights
• Study examined link between perceptions of scientific consensus and beliefs.
• Variables captured at two time points in student sample.
• Perceived consensus does not predict later personal climate beliefs.
• Beliefs predict later perceived consensus for liberal, but not conservative, voters.
Abstract: The gateway belief model posits that perceptions of scientific agreement play a causal role in shaping beliefs about the existence of anthropogenic climate change. However, experimental support for the model is mixed. The current study takes a longitudinal approach, examining the causal relationships between perceived consensus and beliefs. Perceptions of scientific consensus and personal beliefs about climate change were collected over a five-month period in a student sample (N = 356). Cross-lagged panel analysis revealed that perceived scientific consensus did not prospectively predict personal agreement with the reality of climate change, thus the current study did not find support for the gateway belief model. However, the inverse pathway was significant for those with liberal voting intentions: personal beliefs about the reality of anthropogenic climate change prospectively predicted subsequent estimates of consensus. The results suggest that individuals’ perceptions of a consensus among scientists do not have a strong influence on their personal beliefs about climate change.
Why Milk Consumption is the Bigger Problem: Ethical Implications and Deaths per Calorie Created of Milk (and cheese!) Compared to Meat Production
Why Milk Consumption is the Bigger Problem: Ethical Implications and Deaths per Calorie Created of Milk Compared to Meat Production. Karin Kolbe. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, August 2018, Volume 31, Issue 4, pp 467–481. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10806-018-9740-9
Abstract: Pictures of sides of beef, hanging from overhead rails in refrigerated warehouses and meat-processing plants, often leave a feeling of unease. These pictures provoke the notion that human beings have no right to inflict suffering and death on other sentient beings for the sole purpose of providing food. However, the ethical analysis conducted in this study shows that meat production, if animal welfare and deaths per calorie created are considered, is less of a pressing problem compared to the production of milk. While meat can be provided with minimal suffering to animals, the consumption of milk is always associated with considerable suffering during the dairy cow’s life-span and the lives of their offspring. Moreover, more bovine deaths per unit of calorific value created are associated with milk production compared to meat production. The vegan movement, which is currently growing, wishes to minimise farm animal suffering as much as possible. However, if a vegan diet is not possible, consumers should make an informed decision about the products they consume. Replacement of the calories obtained from meat with those from milk and dairy products is not rational if animal welfare is considered.
Abstract: Pictures of sides of beef, hanging from overhead rails in refrigerated warehouses and meat-processing plants, often leave a feeling of unease. These pictures provoke the notion that human beings have no right to inflict suffering and death on other sentient beings for the sole purpose of providing food. However, the ethical analysis conducted in this study shows that meat production, if animal welfare and deaths per calorie created are considered, is less of a pressing problem compared to the production of milk. While meat can be provided with minimal suffering to animals, the consumption of milk is always associated with considerable suffering during the dairy cow’s life-span and the lives of their offspring. Moreover, more bovine deaths per unit of calorific value created are associated with milk production compared to meat production. The vegan movement, which is currently growing, wishes to minimise farm animal suffering as much as possible. However, if a vegan diet is not possible, consumers should make an informed decision about the products they consume. Replacement of the calories obtained from meat with those from milk and dairy products is not rational if animal welfare is considered.
Spending time on social media, regardless of its purpose, relates to perceiving the United States as more politically polarized, which can help reduce polarization except in the group of those not using social media, those older than 75
Gollwitzer, Anton, Social Media Use Relates to Perceiving the United States as More Politically Polarized (March 9, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3137325
Abstract: Much research has examined the role news media and social media play in political polarization. There has been less focus on whether and how social media influences people’s perception of political polarization in society. In one study (N = 328), we examined whether increased social media use relates to perceiving the United States political climate as more or less polarized. Time spent on social media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram) related to perceiving politics as more polarized. This relationship remained when controlling for other variables such as age and political orientation. Of participants who reported using social media, whether they used it for socializing or information gathering did not relate to their level of perceived political polarization. We conclude that spending time on social media, regardless of its purpose, relates to perceiving the United States as more politically polarized. Possible mechanisms and implications of this relationship are discussed.
Keywords: perceived political polarization, social media, information gathering
Abstract: Much research has examined the role news media and social media play in political polarization. There has been less focus on whether and how social media influences people’s perception of political polarization in society. In one study (N = 328), we examined whether increased social media use relates to perceiving the United States political climate as more or less polarized. Time spent on social media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram) related to perceiving politics as more polarized. This relationship remained when controlling for other variables such as age and political orientation. Of participants who reported using social media, whether they used it for socializing or information gathering did not relate to their level of perceived political polarization. We conclude that spending time on social media, regardless of its purpose, relates to perceiving the United States as more politically polarized. Possible mechanisms and implications of this relationship are discussed.
Keywords: perceived political polarization, social media, information gathering
Subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly
Lying Through Others: Does Delegation Promote Deception? Glynis Gawn RobertInnes. Journal of Economic Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2018.08.005
Highlights
• Studies how delegation affects lie aversion.
• Controls for other economic channels by which delegation can affect deception.
• Presents classroom experiments involving black and white lies.
• Finds that subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly.
Abstract: How do agency relationships affect an individual’s willingness to lie for monetary advantage? Does lie aversion decline if a lie (or truth) is sent through an agent, rather than sent directly by the individual? In a recent paper, Erat (2013) shows that a significant proportion of his subjects prefer to delegate a deception decision. We present experiments designed to focus on one of several possible explanations for this intriguing behavior – that delegation reduces lie aversion. The experiments reveal that subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly despite controlling for potential effects of delegated decision-making on preferences over payoffs, probabilities of actions, and/or the desire to avoid taking a decision.
Highlights
• Studies how delegation affects lie aversion.
• Controls for other economic channels by which delegation can affect deception.
• Presents classroom experiments involving black and white lies.
• Finds that subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly.
Abstract: How do agency relationships affect an individual’s willingness to lie for monetary advantage? Does lie aversion decline if a lie (or truth) is sent through an agent, rather than sent directly by the individual? In a recent paper, Erat (2013) shows that a significant proportion of his subjects prefer to delegate a deception decision. We present experiments designed to focus on one of several possible explanations for this intriguing behavior – that delegation reduces lie aversion. The experiments reveal that subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly despite controlling for potential effects of delegated decision-making on preferences over payoffs, probabilities of actions, and/or the desire to avoid taking a decision.
Men are more likely to offer financial correct answers & women are slightly more likely to offer incorrect ones but women are considerably more likely to say "don't know," losing the opportunity to hazard a guess
On the Gender Gap in Financial Knowledge: Decomposing the Effects of Don't Know and Incorrect Responses. Zibei Chen, James C. Garand. Social Science Quarterly, https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12520
Objectives: Past studies have consistently shown that women have lower levels of financial knowledge than men, and hence there is a noticeable gender gap in financial knowledge. We reconsider the conventional measures of financial knowledge by disentangling don't know (DK) responses and incorrect answers and comparing the effect of these two disparate responses’ on the gender gap in financial knowledge.
Methods: Using data from the 2012 National Financial Capability Studies data set, we estimate a series of ordinary least squares regression and multinomial logit models of the gender gap in DK and incorrect responses.
Results: We find a strong gender gap in financial knowledge, but with a twist: (1) men are more likely to offer correct answers; (2) women are slightly more likely to offer incorrect answers; but (3) women are considerably more likely to provide DK responses. Hence women may exhibit lower levels of financial knowledge because they lose the opportunity to hazard a guess and arrive at a correct answer based either on partial knowledge or on random chance. We consider the possibility that there are psychological processes at work involving risk acceptance and confidence in financial knowledge that prompt women to give DK responses at a rate higher than men.
Conclusion: We suggest that future research should consider the relative roles of DK and incorrect responses in measuring financial knowledge.
Objectives: Past studies have consistently shown that women have lower levels of financial knowledge than men, and hence there is a noticeable gender gap in financial knowledge. We reconsider the conventional measures of financial knowledge by disentangling don't know (DK) responses and incorrect answers and comparing the effect of these two disparate responses’ on the gender gap in financial knowledge.
Methods: Using data from the 2012 National Financial Capability Studies data set, we estimate a series of ordinary least squares regression and multinomial logit models of the gender gap in DK and incorrect responses.
Results: We find a strong gender gap in financial knowledge, but with a twist: (1) men are more likely to offer correct answers; (2) women are slightly more likely to offer incorrect answers; but (3) women are considerably more likely to provide DK responses. Hence women may exhibit lower levels of financial knowledge because they lose the opportunity to hazard a guess and arrive at a correct answer based either on partial knowledge or on random chance. We consider the possibility that there are psychological processes at work involving risk acceptance and confidence in financial knowledge that prompt women to give DK responses at a rate higher than men.
Conclusion: We suggest that future research should consider the relative roles of DK and incorrect responses in measuring financial knowledge.
Traditions refer to ‘the virtuous person,’ implying that a class of individuals exists who have achieved a virtuous state; there is little evidence for class structure, & there is support for thinking of virtue as something we must pursue rather than a state that we achieve
Are there virtuous types? Finite mixture modeling of the VIA Inventory of Strengths. Dawn M. Berger & Robert E. McGrath. The Journal of Positive Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1510021
ABSTRACT: Philosophical and religious traditions often refer to ‘the virtuous person.’ This terminology usually carries with it the assumption that a class of individuals exists who have achieved a virtuous state. This study attempted to test that implication. The VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) is intended as a comprehensive assessment of character strengths, which are conceptualized as markers of virtuous character. One prior study using taxometric methods found no evidence for the existence of such a category of individuals using VIA-IS scores. Subsequent literature has suggested the superiority of finite mixture modeling for identifying categorical structure. Latent profile analyses of 1–10 classes were conducted in a stratified sample of 10,000 adults. The results provided little evidence for class structure, and support thinking of virtue as something we must continuously pursue rather than a state that we achieve.
KEYWORDS: Character strengths, virtue, latent profile analysis (LPA), finite mixture modeling (FMM)
ABSTRACT: Philosophical and religious traditions often refer to ‘the virtuous person.’ This terminology usually carries with it the assumption that a class of individuals exists who have achieved a virtuous state. This study attempted to test that implication. The VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) is intended as a comprehensive assessment of character strengths, which are conceptualized as markers of virtuous character. One prior study using taxometric methods found no evidence for the existence of such a category of individuals using VIA-IS scores. Subsequent literature has suggested the superiority of finite mixture modeling for identifying categorical structure. Latent profile analyses of 1–10 classes were conducted in a stratified sample of 10,000 adults. The results provided little evidence for class structure, and support thinking of virtue as something we must continuously pursue rather than a state that we achieve.
KEYWORDS: Character strengths, virtue, latent profile analysis (LPA), finite mixture modeling (FMM)
Tuesday, August 28, 2018
Economic well-being in rural India is clearly increasing across castes; the highest castes are happier than the others; the happiness pattern across the low & middle castes is flat or even downward sloping, which we attribute to the dynamics of downward & upward comparisons
The relationship between status and happiness: Evidence from the caste system in rural India. Bert Van Landeghem, Anneleen Vandeplas. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2018.08.006
Highlights
• In both regions under study, we find that economic well-being in rural India is clearly increasing across castes.
• We also find that the highest castes are happier than the lower and middle castes.
• The happiness pattern across the low and middle castes is either flat or even downward sloping, which we attribute to the dynamics of downward and upward comparisons.
Abstract: A large number of empirical studies have investigated the link between social status and happiness; however, in observational data, identification challenges remain severe. This study exploits the fact that, in India, people are assigned a caste from birth. Two similar surveys of household heads (each with N=1000) in rural Punjab and Andhra Pradesh show an increasing pattern of economic welfare with caste hierarchy. This illustrates that, in the rural regions under study, one’s caste is still an important determinant of opportunities in life. Subsequently, we find that the castes at the top are clearly more satisfied than the lower and middle castes. This result, which is in line with the predictions of all major social comparison theories, is robust across the two case studies. The pattern across low and middle castes, however, is less clear, reflecting the complex theoretical relationship between being of middle rank, on the one hand, and behaviour, aspirations, and well-being, on the other hand. In the Punjab sample, we even find a significant U-shaped pattern, with the middle castes being the least happy. Interestingly, these patterns resemble those found for Olympic medallists (first documented by Medvec et al., 1995).
Highlights
• In both regions under study, we find that economic well-being in rural India is clearly increasing across castes.
• We also find that the highest castes are happier than the lower and middle castes.
• The happiness pattern across the low and middle castes is either flat or even downward sloping, which we attribute to the dynamics of downward and upward comparisons.
Abstract: A large number of empirical studies have investigated the link between social status and happiness; however, in observational data, identification challenges remain severe. This study exploits the fact that, in India, people are assigned a caste from birth. Two similar surveys of household heads (each with N=1000) in rural Punjab and Andhra Pradesh show an increasing pattern of economic welfare with caste hierarchy. This illustrates that, in the rural regions under study, one’s caste is still an important determinant of opportunities in life. Subsequently, we find that the castes at the top are clearly more satisfied than the lower and middle castes. This result, which is in line with the predictions of all major social comparison theories, is robust across the two case studies. The pattern across low and middle castes, however, is less clear, reflecting the complex theoretical relationship between being of middle rank, on the one hand, and behaviour, aspirations, and well-being, on the other hand. In the Punjab sample, we even find a significant U-shaped pattern, with the middle castes being the least happy. Interestingly, these patterns resemble those found for Olympic medallists (first documented by Medvec et al., 1995).
Autodidactism: We are likelier to grow cranky and conspiracy-minded, mistaking brainstorms for insight while rediscovering what the rest of the world already know
'We Can Read Without Learning at All'.“ Patrick Kurp. Sunday Aug 26 2018.
evidenceanecdotal.blogspot.com/2018/08/we-can-read-without-learning-at-all.html
What we mean by ‘education,’ that strange word, still has mostly to do with books, books we possess, keep.”
[...]
The obvious risk involved in adhering strictly to autodidacticism is waywardness. We require the friction of other minds to buff away self-generated roughness. Few of us can polish ourselves. We are likelier to grow cranky and conspiracy-minded, mistaking brainstorms for insight while rediscovering what the rest of the world already knows. Had I read only the books assigned in class, I would today be only nominally literate. Had I read only the books that confirmed the thoughts I already possessed, I would remain marginally illiterate.
[...]
Fr. Schall reminds us of the thrills and risks of self-education: “We can read without learning at all. We can have read only one book, the Bible or Shakespeare, but read it well. We can read many things, none of which move our souls to attend to what is.”
---
The Autodidact Project, by Ralph Dumain: www.autodidactproject.org
evidenceanecdotal.blogspot.com/2018/08/we-can-read-without-learning-at-all.html
What we mean by ‘education,’ that strange word, still has mostly to do with books, books we possess, keep.”
[...]
The obvious risk involved in adhering strictly to autodidacticism is waywardness. We require the friction of other minds to buff away self-generated roughness. Few of us can polish ourselves. We are likelier to grow cranky and conspiracy-minded, mistaking brainstorms for insight while rediscovering what the rest of the world already knows. Had I read only the books assigned in class, I would today be only nominally literate. Had I read only the books that confirmed the thoughts I already possessed, I would remain marginally illiterate.
[...]
Fr. Schall reminds us of the thrills and risks of self-education: “We can read without learning at all. We can have read only one book, the Bible or Shakespeare, but read it well. We can read many things, none of which move our souls to attend to what is.”
---
The Autodidact Project, by Ralph Dumain: www.autodidactproject.org
Children reproduced outcomes that were positively valued by the experimenter significantly more when he was attentive but were more likely to reproduce negatively valued outcomes when he was inattentive
Botto, Sara Valencia, & Rochat, Philippe. (2018). Sensitivity to the evaluation of others emerges by 24 months. Developmental Psychology, 54(9), 1723-1734. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0000548
Abstract: Although the human proclivity to engage in impression management and care for reputation is ubiquitous, the question of its developmental outset remains open. In 4 studies, we demonstrate that the sensitivity to the evaluation of others (i.e., evaluative audience perception) is manifest by 24 months. In a first study, 14- to 24-month-old children (N = 49) were tested in situations in which the attention of an audience was systematically manipulated. Results showed that when the experimenter was inattentive, as opposed to attentive, children were more likely to explore an attractive toy. A second study (N = 31) explored whether same-aged children would consider not only the attention of the experimenter but also the values the experimenter expressed for two different outcomes when exploring a toy. We found that children reproduced outcomes that were positively valued by the experimenter significantly more when the experimenter was attentive but were more likely to reproduce negatively valued outcomes when the experimenter was inattentive. A third control study (N = 30) showed that the significant effect of Study 2 disappeared in the absence of different values. Lastly, Study 4 (N = 34) replicated and extended the phenomenon by showing toddler’s propensity to modify their behavior in the presence of 2 different experimenters, depending on both the experimenter’s evaluation of an outcome and their attention. Overall, these data provide the first convergent demonstration of evaluative audience perception in young children that precedes the full-fledged normative, mentalizing, and strong conformity psychology documented in 4- to 5-year-old children.
Abstract: Although the human proclivity to engage in impression management and care for reputation is ubiquitous, the question of its developmental outset remains open. In 4 studies, we demonstrate that the sensitivity to the evaluation of others (i.e., evaluative audience perception) is manifest by 24 months. In a first study, 14- to 24-month-old children (N = 49) were tested in situations in which the attention of an audience was systematically manipulated. Results showed that when the experimenter was inattentive, as opposed to attentive, children were more likely to explore an attractive toy. A second study (N = 31) explored whether same-aged children would consider not only the attention of the experimenter but also the values the experimenter expressed for two different outcomes when exploring a toy. We found that children reproduced outcomes that were positively valued by the experimenter significantly more when the experimenter was attentive but were more likely to reproduce negatively valued outcomes when the experimenter was inattentive. A third control study (N = 30) showed that the significant effect of Study 2 disappeared in the absence of different values. Lastly, Study 4 (N = 34) replicated and extended the phenomenon by showing toddler’s propensity to modify their behavior in the presence of 2 different experimenters, depending on both the experimenter’s evaluation of an outcome and their attention. Overall, these data provide the first convergent demonstration of evaluative audience perception in young children that precedes the full-fledged normative, mentalizing, and strong conformity psychology documented in 4- to 5-year-old children.
People reported as less likable, relatable, appealing, and more troublesome female Dark Triad characters, than non-Dark Triad & male characters; Non-Dark Triad males were viewed as more troublesome than non-Dark Triad females
Snyder, G. K., Smith, C. V., Øverup, C. S., Paul, A. L., & Davis, T. M. (2018). Characters we love to hate: Perceptions of dark triad characters in media. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000200
Abstract: Although the Dark Triad personality (narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism) has extensive background research, there has been a lack of investigation into perceptions of people high in the Dark Triad. Using film trailers with prominent Dark Triad characters, the current research examined perceptions of characters in movies and TV shows based on their Dark Triad characteristics and their gender. Undergraduate students (pilot study N = 21; present study N = 86) watched theatrical trailers originally released by the production companies before they rated 2 key characters’ Dark Triad traits with the Dirty Dozen (Jonason & Webster, 2010). Analyses revealed significant interactions such that people reported less positive perceptions (e.g., less likable, relatable, appealing, and more troublesome) of female Dark Triad characters, as opposed to non-Dark Triad characters and male characters. Non-Dark Triad male characters were viewed as more troublesome than non-Dark Triad female characters, and female Dark Triad characters were viewed as the most troublesome. Possible extensions could explore the prevalence and popularity of Dark Triad-type characters in the media and how genders in media have changed over time.
Abstract: Although the Dark Triad personality (narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism) has extensive background research, there has been a lack of investigation into perceptions of people high in the Dark Triad. Using film trailers with prominent Dark Triad characters, the current research examined perceptions of characters in movies and TV shows based on their Dark Triad characteristics and their gender. Undergraduate students (pilot study N = 21; present study N = 86) watched theatrical trailers originally released by the production companies before they rated 2 key characters’ Dark Triad traits with the Dirty Dozen (Jonason & Webster, 2010). Analyses revealed significant interactions such that people reported less positive perceptions (e.g., less likable, relatable, appealing, and more troublesome) of female Dark Triad characters, as opposed to non-Dark Triad characters and male characters. Non-Dark Triad male characters were viewed as more troublesome than non-Dark Triad female characters, and female Dark Triad characters were viewed as the most troublesome. Possible extensions could explore the prevalence and popularity of Dark Triad-type characters in the media and how genders in media have changed over time.
Young women taking and posting “selfies” online: Posting selfies on social media resulted in worsened mood and body image; even posting retouched selfies resulted in harmful effects
“Selfie” harm: Effects on mood and body image in young women. Jennifer S. Mills et al. Body Image, Volume 27, December 2018, Pages 86-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.007
Highlights
• We examined the behaviour of taking and posting “selfies” online.
• The current study used an experimental design.
• Posting selfies on social media resulted in worsened mood and body image.
• Even posting retouched selfies resulted in harmful effects.
Abstract: “Selfies” (self-taken photos) are a common self-presentation strategy on social media. This study experimentally tested whether taking and posting selfies, with and without photo-retouching, elicits changes to mood and body image among young women. Female undergraduate students (N = 110) were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: taking and uploading either an untouched selfie, taking and posting a preferred and retouched selfie to social media, or a control group. State mood and body image were measured pre- and post-manipulation. As predicted, there was a main effect of experimental condition on changes to mood and feelings of physical attractiveness. Women who took and posted selfies to social media reported feeling more anxious, less confident, and less physically attractive afterwards compared to those in the control group. Harmful effects of selfies were found even when participants could retake and retouch their selfies. This is the first experimental study showing that taking and posting selfies on social media causes adverse psychological effects for women.
Highlights
• We examined the behaviour of taking and posting “selfies” online.
• The current study used an experimental design.
• Posting selfies on social media resulted in worsened mood and body image.
• Even posting retouched selfies resulted in harmful effects.
Abstract: “Selfies” (self-taken photos) are a common self-presentation strategy on social media. This study experimentally tested whether taking and posting selfies, with and without photo-retouching, elicits changes to mood and body image among young women. Female undergraduate students (N = 110) were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: taking and uploading either an untouched selfie, taking and posting a preferred and retouched selfie to social media, or a control group. State mood and body image were measured pre- and post-manipulation. As predicted, there was a main effect of experimental condition on changes to mood and feelings of physical attractiveness. Women who took and posted selfies to social media reported feeling more anxious, less confident, and less physically attractive afterwards compared to those in the control group. Harmful effects of selfies were found even when participants could retake and retouch their selfies. This is the first experimental study showing that taking and posting selfies on social media causes adverse psychological effects for women.
Adopting a Stigmatized Label: Social Determinants of Identifying as an Atheist beyond Disbelief
Adopting a Stigmatized Label: Social Determinants of Identifying as an Atheist beyond Disbelief. Christopher P Scheitle, Katie E Corcoran, Erin B Hudnall. Social Forces, Social Forces, soy084, https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy084
Abstract: An individual’s identity may not appear to correspond to his or her beliefs and behaviors. Such incongruence may be particularly likely when an identity is stigmatized. We examine this dynamic in the context of atheists. Being an atheist has often been equated with stating a disbelief in God, but this ignores the distinct phenomenon of identifying as an atheist. This study asks what influences the likelihood that an individual will identify as an atheist beyond saying that he or she does not believe in God. Drawing upon research examining the social dynamics of stigma and identity, we hypothesize that having close friends who are atheists will support an individual’s own adoption of the atheist label. On the other hand, we hypothesize that the presence of other stigmatized or at least competing identities, beliefs, and behaviors will serve as a barrier to an individual’s adoption of the atheist label. These expectations are largely supported in an analysis of unique survey data offering separate measures of atheist self-identification and belief in God. This study provides a framework for future research to examine these dynamics in the context of other identities, particularly those that are stigmatized.
Abstract: An individual’s identity may not appear to correspond to his or her beliefs and behaviors. Such incongruence may be particularly likely when an identity is stigmatized. We examine this dynamic in the context of atheists. Being an atheist has often been equated with stating a disbelief in God, but this ignores the distinct phenomenon of identifying as an atheist. This study asks what influences the likelihood that an individual will identify as an atheist beyond saying that he or she does not believe in God. Drawing upon research examining the social dynamics of stigma and identity, we hypothesize that having close friends who are atheists will support an individual’s own adoption of the atheist label. On the other hand, we hypothesize that the presence of other stigmatized or at least competing identities, beliefs, and behaviors will serve as a barrier to an individual’s adoption of the atheist label. These expectations are largely supported in an analysis of unique survey data offering separate measures of atheist self-identification and belief in God. This study provides a framework for future research to examine these dynamics in the context of other identities, particularly those that are stigmatized.
Monday, August 27, 2018
Old, from 2017: Hallmarks of Alzheimer’s Disease in Stem-Cell-Derived Human Neurons Transplanted into Mouse Brain
Old, from 2017: Hallmarks of Alzheimer’s Disease in Stem-Cell-Derived Human Neurons Transplanted into Mouse Brain. Ira Espuny-Camacho et al. Neuron, Volume 93, ISSUE 5, P1066-1081.e8 DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.02.001
Highlights
Human-mouse chimeric model of Alzheimer’s disease
PSC-derived human neurons grafted into an AD mouse
Major degeneration and loss of human neurons in chimeric AD mice
Absence of tangle pathology in degenerating human neurons in vivo
Summary: Human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) provide a unique entry to study species-specific aspects of human disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, in vitro culture of neurons deprives them of their natural environment. Here we transplanted human PSC-derived cortical neuronal precursors into the brain of a murine AD model. Human neurons differentiate and integrate into the brain, express 3R/4R Tau splice forms, show abnormal phosphorylation and conformational Tau changes, and undergo neurodegeneration. Remarkably, cell death was dissociated from tangle formation in this natural 3D model of AD. Using genome-wide expression analysis, we observed upregulation of genes involved in myelination and downregulation of genes related to memory and cognition, synaptic transmission, and neuron projection. This novel chimeric model for AD displays human-specific pathological features and allows the analysis of different genetic backgrounds and mutations during the course of the disease.
Highlights
Human-mouse chimeric model of Alzheimer’s disease
PSC-derived human neurons grafted into an AD mouse
Major degeneration and loss of human neurons in chimeric AD mice
Absence of tangle pathology in degenerating human neurons in vivo
Summary: Human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) provide a unique entry to study species-specific aspects of human disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, in vitro culture of neurons deprives them of their natural environment. Here we transplanted human PSC-derived cortical neuronal precursors into the brain of a murine AD model. Human neurons differentiate and integrate into the brain, express 3R/4R Tau splice forms, show abnormal phosphorylation and conformational Tau changes, and undergo neurodegeneration. Remarkably, cell death was dissociated from tangle formation in this natural 3D model of AD. Using genome-wide expression analysis, we observed upregulation of genes involved in myelination and downregulation of genes related to memory and cognition, synaptic transmission, and neuron projection. This novel chimeric model for AD displays human-specific pathological features and allows the analysis of different genetic backgrounds and mutations during the course of the disease.
Until more compelling evidence emerges, however, a propensity to imitate from birth should no longer be considered an established phenomenon
Re-evaluating the neonatal imitation hypothesis. Janine Oostenbroek et al. Developmental Science, DOI: 10.1111/desc.12720
We appreciate Meltzoff et al.’s (2017) detailed commentary on our study of neonatal imitation (Oostenbroek et al., 2016) and the opportunity to clarify critical aspects of the findings. First, however, we wish to highlight that our data were collected as part of a larger longitudinal investigation, in which we set out to examine potential relations between neonatal imitation and later emerging aspects of social cognition (Suddendorf, Oostenbroek, Nielsen, & Slaughter, 2013). Our aim was not to test the veracity of the phenomenon of neonatal imitation, but to assess whether early individual differences predict later imitative and other socio-cognitive capacities, which would support the view of neonatal imitation as the foundation of social cognition (Meltzoff, 2002). When coding was finalized, it became clear that, to our surprise, the data challenged the very existence of the phenomenon whose trajectory and consequences we sought to chart.
Meltzoff et al. (2017) claim that methodological problems biased our results towards null effects. We assert that there is no compelling reason to think that any of these critiques undermine our challenge to the field. For instance, they argue that too many stimuli were used in a within-subjects design, which may have led to neonatal fatigue and disengagement. If that were the case, however, then initial trials should have elicited imitation but not later ones. We found no such order effects in any of our analyses (see Supplementary Material in Oostenbroek et al., 2016). Meltzoff et al. rightly note that infants cannot be expected to imitate behaviors that they are incapable of producing. Our data show, however, that with the exception of the ‘eee’ vocalizations and sad faces, infants produced all target behaviors either occasionally or regularly. [...]
The literature on neonatal imitation has a long history of post-hoc theorizing. In response to early failures to replicate the effect, for example, it was stipulated that neonates should be unfamiliar with the model’s face to maintain interest during the experiment (Meltzoff & Moore, 1983a). Later, however, it was argued that infants imitate familiar faces to communicate recognition (Meltzoff, 2005; Meltzoff & Moore, 1994), and that ‘imitation is not modified by which person serves as the model’ (Meltzoff & Moore, 1992, p. 492). Now, Meltzoff et al. again argue that the model should be unfamiliar, even suggesting that this is the ‘key’ to eliciting neonatal imitation. Setting aside the obvious contradictions here, it seems untenable to claim that the ‘engine and mechanism for the growth of social cognition’ (Meltzoff, 2002, p. 7) would manifest itself only with unfamiliar people.
We appreciate Meltzoff et al.’s (2017) detailed commentary on our study of neonatal imitation (Oostenbroek et al., 2016) and the opportunity to clarify critical aspects of the findings. First, however, we wish to highlight that our data were collected as part of a larger longitudinal investigation, in which we set out to examine potential relations between neonatal imitation and later emerging aspects of social cognition (Suddendorf, Oostenbroek, Nielsen, & Slaughter, 2013). Our aim was not to test the veracity of the phenomenon of neonatal imitation, but to assess whether early individual differences predict later imitative and other socio-cognitive capacities, which would support the view of neonatal imitation as the foundation of social cognition (Meltzoff, 2002). When coding was finalized, it became clear that, to our surprise, the data challenged the very existence of the phenomenon whose trajectory and consequences we sought to chart.
Meltzoff et al. (2017) claim that methodological problems biased our results towards null effects. We assert that there is no compelling reason to think that any of these critiques undermine our challenge to the field. For instance, they argue that too many stimuli were used in a within-subjects design, which may have led to neonatal fatigue and disengagement. If that were the case, however, then initial trials should have elicited imitation but not later ones. We found no such order effects in any of our analyses (see Supplementary Material in Oostenbroek et al., 2016). Meltzoff et al. rightly note that infants cannot be expected to imitate behaviors that they are incapable of producing. Our data show, however, that with the exception of the ‘eee’ vocalizations and sad faces, infants produced all target behaviors either occasionally or regularly. [...]
The literature on neonatal imitation has a long history of post-hoc theorizing. In response to early failures to replicate the effect, for example, it was stipulated that neonates should be unfamiliar with the model’s face to maintain interest during the experiment (Meltzoff & Moore, 1983a). Later, however, it was argued that infants imitate familiar faces to communicate recognition (Meltzoff, 2005; Meltzoff & Moore, 1994), and that ‘imitation is not modified by which person serves as the model’ (Meltzoff & Moore, 1992, p. 492). Now, Meltzoff et al. again argue that the model should be unfamiliar, even suggesting that this is the ‘key’ to eliciting neonatal imitation. Setting aside the obvious contradictions here, it seems untenable to claim that the ‘engine and mechanism for the growth of social cognition’ (Meltzoff, 2002, p. 7) would manifest itself only with unfamiliar people.
Individuals with stronger social anxiety perceive their environment as hierarchically organized & their own position relatively low; positive evaluations might mean problems, so a goal could be protection by avoiding making “too good” of an impression
Malaise with praise: A narrative review of 10 years of research on the concept of Fear of Positive Evaluation in social anxiety. Julia Reichenberger, Jens Blechert. Depression and Anxiety, https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22808
Abstract: Social anxiety is characterized by a fear of being negatively evaluated by others (i.e., Fear of Negative Evaluation [FNE]). In 2008, Weeks, Heimberg, and Rodebaugh proposed Fear of Positive Evaluation (FPE) as a second cognitive component in social anxiety. The article presents an overview of FPE, its psycho‐evolutionary theoretical foundation and assessment by the Fear of Positive Evaluation Scale as well as relevant psychometric research on demographic characteristics. The relationship of FPE with a wide range of established dimensions from clinical, personality, and social psychology (i.e., self‐esteem, perfectionism, or quality of life) will be reviewed. The role of FPE for psychological comorbidities such as other anxiety disorders, depression, eating, and substance use disorders as well as for treatment of social anxiety will be discussed. Future research might address questions of causality of FPE relative to related constructs, further data on psychometric properties, as well as on its independence from FNE in longitudinal studies. In sum, FPE seems to be a valid and reliable construct that explains cognitions, emotions, and behavior related to social anxiety at subclinical and clinical levels and therefore enriches the psychometric repertoire in the fields of social psychology, personality, and clinical psychology.
---
A theoretical framework for FPE stems from the psycho-evolutionary model of social anxiety by Gilbert (2001, 2014) and was adapted by Weeks et al. (2008a). Accordingly, individuals with stronger social anxiety perceive their environment as hierarchically organized, and see their own position in the hierarchy as relatively low. Their ultimate goal is supposedly a stable, intermediate position and an avoidance of upward or downward shifts in the social hierarchy. This “inconspicuous” intermediate position is the result of two “regulatory forces”, FNE and FPE (see Figure 1). Specifically, the upward movements in the social hierarchy, implied in positive evaluation, might attract the group's attention, prompting higher-ranking group members to compete and challenge this new “rising star.” Hence, the goal of FPE could be protection from this threat by avoiding making “too good” of an impression, thereby avoiding an upward shift in social hierarchy.
Abstract: Social anxiety is characterized by a fear of being negatively evaluated by others (i.e., Fear of Negative Evaluation [FNE]). In 2008, Weeks, Heimberg, and Rodebaugh proposed Fear of Positive Evaluation (FPE) as a second cognitive component in social anxiety. The article presents an overview of FPE, its psycho‐evolutionary theoretical foundation and assessment by the Fear of Positive Evaluation Scale as well as relevant psychometric research on demographic characteristics. The relationship of FPE with a wide range of established dimensions from clinical, personality, and social psychology (i.e., self‐esteem, perfectionism, or quality of life) will be reviewed. The role of FPE for psychological comorbidities such as other anxiety disorders, depression, eating, and substance use disorders as well as for treatment of social anxiety will be discussed. Future research might address questions of causality of FPE relative to related constructs, further data on psychometric properties, as well as on its independence from FNE in longitudinal studies. In sum, FPE seems to be a valid and reliable construct that explains cognitions, emotions, and behavior related to social anxiety at subclinical and clinical levels and therefore enriches the psychometric repertoire in the fields of social psychology, personality, and clinical psychology.
---
A theoretical framework for FPE stems from the psycho-evolutionary model of social anxiety by Gilbert (2001, 2014) and was adapted by Weeks et al. (2008a). Accordingly, individuals with stronger social anxiety perceive their environment as hierarchically organized, and see their own position in the hierarchy as relatively low. Their ultimate goal is supposedly a stable, intermediate position and an avoidance of upward or downward shifts in the social hierarchy. This “inconspicuous” intermediate position is the result of two “regulatory forces”, FNE and FPE (see Figure 1). Specifically, the upward movements in the social hierarchy, implied in positive evaluation, might attract the group's attention, prompting higher-ranking group members to compete and challenge this new “rising star.” Hence, the goal of FPE could be protection from this threat by avoiding making “too good” of an impression, thereby avoiding an upward shift in social hierarchy.
Pink for Girls, Red for Boys, and Blue for Both Genders: Colour Preferences in Children and Adults
Pink for Girls, Red for Boys, and Blue for Both Genders: Colour Preferences in Children and Adults, Domicele Jonauskaite et al. Sex Roles, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-018-0955-z
Abstract: Colours carry social connotations like pink for girls and blue for boys. In a cross-sectional study, we investigated whether such early gender coding might be reflected in absolute colour preferences in children and adults of both genders. In two studies, participants selected their favourite (and least favourite, Study 2) colour from an unrestricted sample of colours. We tested 129 Swiss children (Study 1, 10–14 years-old, 68 boys) and 180 Swiss adults (Study 2, 17–48 years-old, 88 men). In children, we observed that girls chose pink/purple as their favourite hue more often than boys did, the most common favourite hue in girls and boys was blue, and boys chose red as their favourite more often than girls did. In adults, we observed that both genders almost never choose pink as their favourite, blue was a common favourite colour, and women were more likely to favour red than were men. In an additional study (n = 183 Swiss participants, 47 men), we tested whether liking of pink, blue, and red was related to emotion associations with these colours. Pink was associated with positive emotions to the same extent as blue and red. Women further associated more positive emotions with pink than did men. We conclude that some commonalities (blue) and gender differences (pink and red) exist in absolute colour preferences. These differences, however, cannot be fully accounted by emotional associations. We speculate about these gendered colour preferences in relation to gender stereotypes and status differences between men and women.
Abstract: Colours carry social connotations like pink for girls and blue for boys. In a cross-sectional study, we investigated whether such early gender coding might be reflected in absolute colour preferences in children and adults of both genders. In two studies, participants selected their favourite (and least favourite, Study 2) colour from an unrestricted sample of colours. We tested 129 Swiss children (Study 1, 10–14 years-old, 68 boys) and 180 Swiss adults (Study 2, 17–48 years-old, 88 men). In children, we observed that girls chose pink/purple as their favourite hue more often than boys did, the most common favourite hue in girls and boys was blue, and boys chose red as their favourite more often than girls did. In adults, we observed that both genders almost never choose pink as their favourite, blue was a common favourite colour, and women were more likely to favour red than were men. In an additional study (n = 183 Swiss participants, 47 men), we tested whether liking of pink, blue, and red was related to emotion associations with these colours. Pink was associated with positive emotions to the same extent as blue and red. Women further associated more positive emotions with pink than did men. We conclude that some commonalities (blue) and gender differences (pink and red) exist in absolute colour preferences. These differences, however, cannot be fully accounted by emotional associations. We speculate about these gendered colour preferences in relation to gender stereotypes and status differences between men and women.
American adolescents positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, & hazardous driving; possible causes are the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, & the social consequences of electronic media use
Arnett, J. J. (2018). Getting better all the time: Trends in risk behavior among American adolescents since 1990. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 6(1), 87-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/arc0000046
Abstract: Contrary to the negative narrative in psychology and in the American public, many trends in the risk behaviors of American adolescents have been positive in recent decades. Evidence is presented for positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, and hazardous automobile driving. A comparison of American adolescents to older Americans and to adolescents in other developed countries indicates that the pattern of positive trends is distinct to young Americans and does not apply consistently across age groups and countries. Three explanations for the positive trends are considered: the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, and the social consequences of electronic media use. The most promising hypothesis is that a rise in electronic media use led to a decline in unstructured socializing, which led in turn to lower risk behavior.
Impact Statement: Contrary to the negative narrative in psychology and in the American public, many trends in the risk behaviors of American adolescents have been positive in recent decades. Evidence is presented for positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, and hazardous automobile driving. A comparison of American adolescents to older Americans and to adolescents in other developed countries indicates that the pattern of positive trends is distinct to young Americans and does not apply consistently across age groups and countries. Three explanations for the positive trends are considered: the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, and the social consequences of electronic media use. The most promising hypothesis is that a rise in electronic media use led to a decline in unstructured socializing, which led in turn to lower risk behavior.
Abstract: Contrary to the negative narrative in psychology and in the American public, many trends in the risk behaviors of American adolescents have been positive in recent decades. Evidence is presented for positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, and hazardous automobile driving. A comparison of American adolescents to older Americans and to adolescents in other developed countries indicates that the pattern of positive trends is distinct to young Americans and does not apply consistently across age groups and countries. Three explanations for the positive trends are considered: the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, and the social consequences of electronic media use. The most promising hypothesis is that a rise in electronic media use led to a decline in unstructured socializing, which led in turn to lower risk behavior.
Impact Statement: Contrary to the negative narrative in psychology and in the American public, many trends in the risk behaviors of American adolescents have been positive in recent decades. Evidence is presented for positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, and hazardous automobile driving. A comparison of American adolescents to older Americans and to adolescents in other developed countries indicates that the pattern of positive trends is distinct to young Americans and does not apply consistently across age groups and countries. Three explanations for the positive trends are considered: the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, and the social consequences of electronic media use. The most promising hypothesis is that a rise in electronic media use led to a decline in unstructured socializing, which led in turn to lower risk behavior.
Saturday, August 25, 2018
Milgram replication: In conditions where the participants were not given money up front it was necessary to employ more verbal prompts in order to induce obedience
The (doubtful) role of financial reward in obedience to authority. Dariusz Dolinski & Tomasz Grzyb. The Journal of Social Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2018.1505708
ABSTRACT: The Milgram experiments are among the most well-known and important in the history of psychology. Since first published, there have been countless discussions held on the subject of what factors induce people to exhibit extreme obedience towards authority. One such potential factor, not yet explored empirically, is the receipt in advance of financial gratification by a study participant. In our experiment we compare obedience among participants in classic Milgram paradigm conditions with obedience in a situation where the participant does not receive financial gratification in advance. The results did not show that obedience differed in the two comparable situations. In conditions where the participants were not given money up front, however, it was necessary to employ more verbal prompts in order to induce obedience.
Keywords: Obedience, financial gratification, reciprocity
ABSTRACT: The Milgram experiments are among the most well-known and important in the history of psychology. Since first published, there have been countless discussions held on the subject of what factors induce people to exhibit extreme obedience towards authority. One such potential factor, not yet explored empirically, is the receipt in advance of financial gratification by a study participant. In our experiment we compare obedience among participants in classic Milgram paradigm conditions with obedience in a situation where the participant does not receive financial gratification in advance. The results did not show that obedience differed in the two comparable situations. In conditions where the participants were not given money up front, however, it was necessary to employ more verbal prompts in order to induce obedience.
Keywords: Obedience, financial gratification, reciprocity
Women are usually somewhat earlier chronotypes, who go to bed earlier, fall asleep earlier, and then get up a little earlier; this difference arises with puberty and ends with menopause, from which a reproductive function can be interpreted
The chronotype in relationships and sexual behavior - a first overview (automatic translation of Der Chronotyp in Beziehungen und Sexualverhalten – eine erste Übersicht). Christoph Randler. Somnologie, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11818-018-0176-2
Abstract: A late chronotype (owls) is someone who tends to go to bed late, so he or she will get up later. In contrast, morning types (larks) get up earlier and go to bed earlier. Men and women differ in their chronotype. Women are usually somewhat earlier chronotypes, who go to bed earlier, fall asleep earlier, and then get up a little earlier. Interestingly, this difference arises with puberty and ends with menopause, from which a reproductive function can be interpreted. From an evolutionary Darwinian perspective, this is a sexual dimorphism that can be explained by sexual selection. Various studies have indeed shown that men of the evening type reported more sexual partners, in Italy, Sri Lanka and Germany. Furthermore, studies show that assortative behaviour takes place when choosing a partner, i. e. there are more couples whose partners are similar the chronotype. However, there are still many open questions related to this topic.
Abstract: A late chronotype (owls) is someone who tends to go to bed late, so he or she will get up later. In contrast, morning types (larks) get up earlier and go to bed earlier. Men and women differ in their chronotype. Women are usually somewhat earlier chronotypes, who go to bed earlier, fall asleep earlier, and then get up a little earlier. Interestingly, this difference arises with puberty and ends with menopause, from which a reproductive function can be interpreted. From an evolutionary Darwinian perspective, this is a sexual dimorphism that can be explained by sexual selection. Various studies have indeed shown that men of the evening type reported more sexual partners, in Italy, Sri Lanka and Germany. Furthermore, studies show that assortative behaviour takes place when choosing a partner, i. e. there are more couples whose partners are similar the chronotype. However, there are still many open questions related to this topic.
On the positive association between candy and fruit gum consumption and hyperactivity in children and adolescents with ADHD
On the positive association between candy and fruit gum consumption and hyperactivity in children and adolescents with ADHD. Nicole Wolff et al. Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie. https://doi.org/10.1024/1422-4917/a000609
Abstract
Objective: The purpose of the present study was the analysis of the association between consumption of candy and fruit gums, diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and behavioural problems.
Methods: In total, 1,187 children and adolescents of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS) were analyzed. Results: It was observed that children and adolescents with ADHD as compared to healthy controls (HC) reported to consume more frequently and higher amounts of candy and fruit gums and that hyperactivity was associated with frequent candy and fruit gum consumption.
Conclusions: Because with the present design no conclusions on causality or directionality of the found associations could be drawn, results are discussed quite broadly in the light of several previously published interpretations, also to serve as a generator for further research. One more innovative speculation is that children and adolescents with ADHD may consume more frequently candy and fruit gums in order i) to compensate for their higher needs of energy resulting from hyperactive behaviour and/or ii) to compensate for the ADHD-typical deficits in the “reward cascade”.
Keywords: ADHD, nutrition, hyperactivity, children, adolescents
Abstract
Objective: The purpose of the present study was the analysis of the association between consumption of candy and fruit gums, diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and behavioural problems.
Methods: In total, 1,187 children and adolescents of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS) were analyzed. Results: It was observed that children and adolescents with ADHD as compared to healthy controls (HC) reported to consume more frequently and higher amounts of candy and fruit gums and that hyperactivity was associated with frequent candy and fruit gum consumption.
Conclusions: Because with the present design no conclusions on causality or directionality of the found associations could be drawn, results are discussed quite broadly in the light of several previously published interpretations, also to serve as a generator for further research. One more innovative speculation is that children and adolescents with ADHD may consume more frequently candy and fruit gums in order i) to compensate for their higher needs of energy resulting from hyperactive behaviour and/or ii) to compensate for the ADHD-typical deficits in the “reward cascade”.
Keywords: ADHD, nutrition, hyperactivity, children, adolescents
Weak positive correlation for psychopathic tendencies & leadership emergence, weak negative association with leadership effectiveness, & moderate negative correlation with transformational leadership
Shall We Serve the Dark Lords? A Meta-Analytic Review of Psychopathy and Leadership. Karen Landay, Peter D Harms, Marcus Credé. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327039686
Abstract: Both scholars and the popular press have expressed concern regarding the potential prevalence of individuals with psychopathic tendencies in corporate leadership positions and the negative effects they may have on both individual workers and their organizations as a whole. However, research to date has been inconclusive as to whether such individuals are more likely to emerge as leaders or if they are (in)effective leaders. In order to clarify the state of the literature, we conducted a meta-analysis on the association between psychopathic personality characteristics and leadership emergence, leadership effectiveness, and transformational leadership. Our results, based on data from 92 independent samples, showed a weak positive correlation for psychopathic tendencies and leadership emergence, a weak negative association for psychopathic tendencies and leadership effectiveness, and a moderate negative correlation for psychopathic tendencies and transformational leadership. Subgroup analyses on methodological factors did not indicate any differences from the main results. However, moderator analyses showed a gender difference in these associations such that psychopathic tendencies in men were weakly positively correlated with leadership emergence and effectiveness and negatively correlated with transformational leadership, while psychopathic tendencies in women were negatively associated with effectiveness and transformational leadership, and largely unassociated with emergence. Additionally, small but consistent curvilinear associations were found for all leadership criteria. Overall, these results suggest that concern over psychopathic tendencies in organizational leaders may be overblown, but that gender can function to obscure real effects.
Abstract: Both scholars and the popular press have expressed concern regarding the potential prevalence of individuals with psychopathic tendencies in corporate leadership positions and the negative effects they may have on both individual workers and their organizations as a whole. However, research to date has been inconclusive as to whether such individuals are more likely to emerge as leaders or if they are (in)effective leaders. In order to clarify the state of the literature, we conducted a meta-analysis on the association between psychopathic personality characteristics and leadership emergence, leadership effectiveness, and transformational leadership. Our results, based on data from 92 independent samples, showed a weak positive correlation for psychopathic tendencies and leadership emergence, a weak negative association for psychopathic tendencies and leadership effectiveness, and a moderate negative correlation for psychopathic tendencies and transformational leadership. Subgroup analyses on methodological factors did not indicate any differences from the main results. However, moderator analyses showed a gender difference in these associations such that psychopathic tendencies in men were weakly positively correlated with leadership emergence and effectiveness and negatively correlated with transformational leadership, while psychopathic tendencies in women were negatively associated with effectiveness and transformational leadership, and largely unassociated with emergence. Additionally, small but consistent curvilinear associations were found for all leadership criteria. Overall, these results suggest that concern over psychopathic tendencies in organizational leaders may be overblown, but that gender can function to obscure real effects.
Increases in Sex with Same-sex Partners Across U.S. Cohorts Born 1920-1998
Mishel, Emma, Paula England, Jessie Ford, and Monica Caudillo. 2018. “Increases in Sex with Same-sex Partners Across U.S. Cohorts Born 1920-1998: A Race-gender Intersection.” SocArXiv. August 24. doi:10.31235/osf.io/af8qk
Abstract: We examine change across U.S. cohorts born between 1920 and 1998 in their probability of having had sex with same-sex partners last year and since age 18. We explore how trends differ by gender, race and class background. We use data from the 1988-2016 General Social Surveys. We find steady increases across birth cohorts in the proportion of men and women who have had both male and female sexual partners since age 18. A key finding is a race-gender intersection: black men and women of all races had similar increases— increases which were much steeper than those observed for white men. We suggest that women’s increase is rooted in a long-term asymmetry in gender change, in which nonconformity to gender norms in many arenas is more acceptable for women than men. As the increase for men is largest among black men—and this is the population most affected by the rise of mass incarceration—we suggest the latter may be a contributing factor.
Abstract: We examine change across U.S. cohorts born between 1920 and 1998 in their probability of having had sex with same-sex partners last year and since age 18. We explore how trends differ by gender, race and class background. We use data from the 1988-2016 General Social Surveys. We find steady increases across birth cohorts in the proportion of men and women who have had both male and female sexual partners since age 18. A key finding is a race-gender intersection: black men and women of all races had similar increases— increases which were much steeper than those observed for white men. We suggest that women’s increase is rooted in a long-term asymmetry in gender change, in which nonconformity to gender norms in many arenas is more acceptable for women than men. As the increase for men is largest among black men—and this is the population most affected by the rise of mass incarceration—we suggest the latter may be a contributing factor.
Pleasantness was induced by mere imagination of touch without any tactile stimulation, & touch that was sexually arousing for the receiver was rated as more sexually arousing for the giver as well, pointing to top-down, learned expectations of sensory pleasure and erogeneity
Dissociable sources of erogeneity in social touch: Imagining and perceiving C-Tactile optimal touch in erogenous zones. Elena Panagiotopoulou, Maria Laura Filippetti, Antje Gentsch, Aikaterini Fotopoulou. PLOS One, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203039
Abstract: Previous research points to two major hypotheses regarding the mechanisms by which touch can be experienced as erotogenic. The first concerns the body part to which touch is applied (erogenous zones) and the second the modality of touch (sensual touch optimal in activating C Tactile afferents). In this study, we explored for the first time the relation between those two mechanisms in actual and imagined social touch. In a first experiment, we randomly assigned “Giver” and “Receiver” roles within 19 romantic couples (20 females, 18 males, age 32.34 ± 8.71SD years) and asked the “Giver” to apply CT-optimal (3 cm/s) vs. CT-suboptimal (18 cm/s) touch on an erogenous (neck) vs. non-erogenous zone (forehead) of their partner. We then obtained ratings of pleasantness and sexual arousal from both “Receivers” and “Givers”. In a second experiment, 32 healthy females (age 25.16 ± 5.91SD years) were asked to imagine CT-optimal vs. CT-suboptimal stimulation (stroking vs. patting) and velocity (3 cm/s vs. 18 cm/s) on different erogenous vs. non-erogenous zones and rate pleasantness. While both erogenous body part and CT-optimal, sensual touch were found to increase pleasant and erotic sensations, the results showed a lack of an interaction. Furthermore, Pleasantness was induced by mere imagination of touch without any tactile stimulation, and touch that was sexually arousing for the receiver was rated as more sexually arousing for the giver as well, pointing to top-down, learned expectations of sensory pleasure and erogeneity. Taken together, these studies provide the first direct evidence that while both the body location to which touch is applied and the mode of touch contribute to pleasant and erotic sensations, these two factors appear to mediate subjective pleasantness and erogeneity by, at least partly, independent mechanisms.
Abstract: Previous research points to two major hypotheses regarding the mechanisms by which touch can be experienced as erotogenic. The first concerns the body part to which touch is applied (erogenous zones) and the second the modality of touch (sensual touch optimal in activating C Tactile afferents). In this study, we explored for the first time the relation between those two mechanisms in actual and imagined social touch. In a first experiment, we randomly assigned “Giver” and “Receiver” roles within 19 romantic couples (20 females, 18 males, age 32.34 ± 8.71SD years) and asked the “Giver” to apply CT-optimal (3 cm/s) vs. CT-suboptimal (18 cm/s) touch on an erogenous (neck) vs. non-erogenous zone (forehead) of their partner. We then obtained ratings of pleasantness and sexual arousal from both “Receivers” and “Givers”. In a second experiment, 32 healthy females (age 25.16 ± 5.91SD years) were asked to imagine CT-optimal vs. CT-suboptimal stimulation (stroking vs. patting) and velocity (3 cm/s vs. 18 cm/s) on different erogenous vs. non-erogenous zones and rate pleasantness. While both erogenous body part and CT-optimal, sensual touch were found to increase pleasant and erotic sensations, the results showed a lack of an interaction. Furthermore, Pleasantness was induced by mere imagination of touch without any tactile stimulation, and touch that was sexually arousing for the receiver was rated as more sexually arousing for the giver as well, pointing to top-down, learned expectations of sensory pleasure and erogeneity. Taken together, these studies provide the first direct evidence that while both the body location to which touch is applied and the mode of touch contribute to pleasant and erotic sensations, these two factors appear to mediate subjective pleasantness and erogeneity by, at least partly, independent mechanisms.
Friday, August 24, 2018
Effects of a Hypnosis Session Before General Anesthesia on Postoperative Outcomes in Patients Who Underwent Minor Breast Cancer Surgery
Effects of a Hypnosis Session Before General Anesthesia on Postoperative
Outcomes in Patients Who Underwent Minor Breast Cancer Surgery - The HYPNOSEIN Randomized Clinical Trial. Jibba Amraoui et al. JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181164. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1164
Key Points
Question What is the benefit of a short hypnosis session before general anesthesia on postoperative outcomes (pain, nausea/vomiting, fatigue, comfort/well-being, anxiety, postanesthesia care unit length of stay, and patient satisfaction) in patients who underwent minor breast cancer surgery?
Findings In this randomized clinical trial, 150 women were randomized to receive hypnosis or a control group, and the mean breast pain score before discharge was 1.75 in the control arm vs 2.63 in the hypnosis arm. At discharge, no statistically significant difference in breast pain was reported.
Meaning No benefit of hypnosis was found on postoperative breast pain; however, hypnosis seems to have other benefits regarding fatigue, anxiety, and patient satisfaction.
Abstract
Importance Hypnosis is now widespread in medical practice and is emerging as an alternative technique for pain management and anxiety. However, its effects on postoperative outcomes remain unclear.
Objective To evaluate the efficacy of a preoperative hypnosis session for reducing postoperative breast pain in patients who underwent minor breast cancer surgery.
Design, Setting, and Participants The HYPNOSEIN prospective randomized clinical trial was conducted from October 7, 2014, to April 5, 2016. In this multicenter study in France, 150 women scheduled for minor breast cancer surgery were randomized between control and hypnosis arms, and 148 (71 control and 77 hypnosis) were included in the intent-to-treat analysis.
Intervention On the day of surgery, eligible patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to the control arm or the hypnosis arm. Patients (but not the care teams) were blinded to the arm to which they were assigned. A 15-minute hypnosis session before general anesthesia in the operating room was performed in the hypnosis arm.
Main Outcomes and Measures The primary end point was breast pain reduction (by 2 on a visual analog scale), assessed immediately before discharge from the postanesthesia care unit (PACU). Secondary end points were nausea/vomiting, fatigue, comfort/well-being, anxiety, and PACU length of stay, assessed at different times until postoperative day 30.
Results The median patient age was 57 years (range, 33-79 years) in the control arm and 53 years (range, 20-84 years) in the hypnosis arm. Baseline characteristics were similar in the 2 arms. The median duration of the hypnosis session was 6 minutes (range, 2-15 minutes). The use of intraoperative opioids and hypnotics was lower in the hypnosis arm. The mean (SD) breast pain score (range, 0-10) was 1.75 (1.59) in the control arm vs 2.63 (1.62) in the hypnosis arm (P = .004). At PACU discharge and with longer follow-up, no statistically significant difference in breast pain was reported. Fatigue was significantly lower in the hypnosis arm on the evening of surgery (mean [SD] score, 3.81 [2.15] in the control arm vs 2.99 [2.56] in the hypnosis arm; P = .03). The median PACU length of stay was 60 minutes (range, 20-290 minutes) in the control arm vs 46 minutes (range, 5-100 minutes) in the hypnosis arm (P = .002). Exploratory analyses according to patient perception of whether she received hypnosis showed significantly lower fatigue scores in the perceived hypnosis subgroup on the evening of surgery (mean [SD], 4.13 [2.26] for no perceived hypnosis vs 2.97 [2.42] for perceived hypnosis; P = .01). Anxiety was also significantly lower on the evening of surgery in the perceived hypnosis subgroup (mean [SD], 0.75 [1.64] for perceived hypnosis vs 1.67 [2.29] for no perceived hypnosis; P = .03).
Conclusions and Relevance The results of this study do not support a benefit of hypnosis on postoperative breast pain in women undergoing minor breast cancer surgery. However, other outcomes seem to be improved, which needs to be confirmed by further studies.
Key Points
Question What is the benefit of a short hypnosis session before general anesthesia on postoperative outcomes (pain, nausea/vomiting, fatigue, comfort/well-being, anxiety, postanesthesia care unit length of stay, and patient satisfaction) in patients who underwent minor breast cancer surgery?
Findings In this randomized clinical trial, 150 women were randomized to receive hypnosis or a control group, and the mean breast pain score before discharge was 1.75 in the control arm vs 2.63 in the hypnosis arm. At discharge, no statistically significant difference in breast pain was reported.
Meaning No benefit of hypnosis was found on postoperative breast pain; however, hypnosis seems to have other benefits regarding fatigue, anxiety, and patient satisfaction.
Abstract
Importance Hypnosis is now widespread in medical practice and is emerging as an alternative technique for pain management and anxiety. However, its effects on postoperative outcomes remain unclear.
Objective To evaluate the efficacy of a preoperative hypnosis session for reducing postoperative breast pain in patients who underwent minor breast cancer surgery.
Design, Setting, and Participants The HYPNOSEIN prospective randomized clinical trial was conducted from October 7, 2014, to April 5, 2016. In this multicenter study in France, 150 women scheduled for minor breast cancer surgery were randomized between control and hypnosis arms, and 148 (71 control and 77 hypnosis) were included in the intent-to-treat analysis.
Intervention On the day of surgery, eligible patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to the control arm or the hypnosis arm. Patients (but not the care teams) were blinded to the arm to which they were assigned. A 15-minute hypnosis session before general anesthesia in the operating room was performed in the hypnosis arm.
Main Outcomes and Measures The primary end point was breast pain reduction (by 2 on a visual analog scale), assessed immediately before discharge from the postanesthesia care unit (PACU). Secondary end points were nausea/vomiting, fatigue, comfort/well-being, anxiety, and PACU length of stay, assessed at different times until postoperative day 30.
Results The median patient age was 57 years (range, 33-79 years) in the control arm and 53 years (range, 20-84 years) in the hypnosis arm. Baseline characteristics were similar in the 2 arms. The median duration of the hypnosis session was 6 minutes (range, 2-15 minutes). The use of intraoperative opioids and hypnotics was lower in the hypnosis arm. The mean (SD) breast pain score (range, 0-10) was 1.75 (1.59) in the control arm vs 2.63 (1.62) in the hypnosis arm (P = .004). At PACU discharge and with longer follow-up, no statistically significant difference in breast pain was reported. Fatigue was significantly lower in the hypnosis arm on the evening of surgery (mean [SD] score, 3.81 [2.15] in the control arm vs 2.99 [2.56] in the hypnosis arm; P = .03). The median PACU length of stay was 60 minutes (range, 20-290 minutes) in the control arm vs 46 minutes (range, 5-100 minutes) in the hypnosis arm (P = .002). Exploratory analyses according to patient perception of whether she received hypnosis showed significantly lower fatigue scores in the perceived hypnosis subgroup on the evening of surgery (mean [SD], 4.13 [2.26] for no perceived hypnosis vs 2.97 [2.42] for perceived hypnosis; P = .01). Anxiety was also significantly lower on the evening of surgery in the perceived hypnosis subgroup (mean [SD], 0.75 [1.64] for perceived hypnosis vs 1.67 [2.29] for no perceived hypnosis; P = .03).
Conclusions and Relevance The results of this study do not support a benefit of hypnosis on postoperative breast pain in women undergoing minor breast cancer surgery. However, other outcomes seem to be improved, which needs to be confirmed by further studies.
Higher early adulthood cognitive ability was associated with more frequent alcohol consumption & binge drinking in midlife; the relation did not change to a large degree when further adjusted for education, & if any resulted in a stronger association
The interplay between cognitive ability, alcohol consumption, and health characteristics. E. Degerud et al. Psychological Medicine, Volume 48, Issue 12, September 2018, pp. 2011-2022. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717003543
Abstract
Background: Higher cognitive ability is associated with favourable health characteristics. The relation between ability and alcohol consumption, and their interplay with other health characteristics, is unclear. We aimed to assess the relationship between cognitive ability and alcohol consumption and to assess whether alcohol consumption relates differently to health characteristics across strata of ability.
Methods: For 63 120 Norwegian males, data on cognitive ability in early adulthood were linked to midlife data on alcohol consumption frequency (times per month, 0–30) and other health characteristics, including cardiovascular risk factors and mental distress. Relations were assessed using linear regression and reported as unstandardised beta coefficients [95% confidence interval (CI)].
Results: The mean ± s.d. frequency of total alcohol consumption in the sample was 4.0 ± 3.8 times per month. In the low, medium, and high group of ability, the frequencies were 3.0 ± 3.3, 3.7 ± 3.5, and 4.7 ± 4.1, respectively. In the full sample, alcohol consumption was associated with physical activity, heart rate, fat mass, smoking, and mental distress. Most notably, each additional day of consumption was associated with a 0.54% (0.44–0.64) and 0.14% (0.09–0.18) increase in the probability of current smoking and mental distress, respectively. In each strata of ability (low, medium, high), estimates were 0.87% (0.57–1.17), 0.48% (0.31–0.66) and 0.49% (0.36–0.62) for current smoking, and 0.44% (0.28–0.60), 0.10% (0.02–0.18), and 0.09% (0.03–0.15) for mental distress, respectively.
Conclusions: Participants with low cognitive ability drink less frequently, but in this group, more frequent alcohol consumption is more strongly associated with adverse health characteristics.
Abstract
Background: Higher cognitive ability is associated with favourable health characteristics. The relation between ability and alcohol consumption, and their interplay with other health characteristics, is unclear. We aimed to assess the relationship between cognitive ability and alcohol consumption and to assess whether alcohol consumption relates differently to health characteristics across strata of ability.
Methods: For 63 120 Norwegian males, data on cognitive ability in early adulthood were linked to midlife data on alcohol consumption frequency (times per month, 0–30) and other health characteristics, including cardiovascular risk factors and mental distress. Relations were assessed using linear regression and reported as unstandardised beta coefficients [95% confidence interval (CI)].
Results: The mean ± s.d. frequency of total alcohol consumption in the sample was 4.0 ± 3.8 times per month. In the low, medium, and high group of ability, the frequencies were 3.0 ± 3.3, 3.7 ± 3.5, and 4.7 ± 4.1, respectively. In the full sample, alcohol consumption was associated with physical activity, heart rate, fat mass, smoking, and mental distress. Most notably, each additional day of consumption was associated with a 0.54% (0.44–0.64) and 0.14% (0.09–0.18) increase in the probability of current smoking and mental distress, respectively. In each strata of ability (low, medium, high), estimates were 0.87% (0.57–1.17), 0.48% (0.31–0.66) and 0.49% (0.36–0.62) for current smoking, and 0.44% (0.28–0.60), 0.10% (0.02–0.18), and 0.09% (0.03–0.15) for mental distress, respectively.
Conclusions: Participants with low cognitive ability drink less frequently, but in this group, more frequent alcohol consumption is more strongly associated with adverse health characteristics.
Mindfulness makes one more aware of present and incoming information & is relevant to food choice and food sustainability issues; it may increase disgust & reduce attitudes toward eating insects
Mindfulness and Willingness to Try Insects as Food: The Role of Disgust. Eugene Y. Chan. Food Quality and Preference, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.08.014
Highlights
• Mindfulness makes one more aware of present and incoming information.
• Mindfulness is relevant to food choice and food sustainability issues.
• We study and test the impact of mindfulness on insect-eating attitudes.
• Mindfulness may increase disgust and reduce attitudes toward eating bugs.
• Results from three studies are consistent with this theorizing.
Abstract: Mindfulness, commonly associated with Buddhism, refers to the state of being aware, taking note of what is going on within oneself and outside of the world. In the current research, we examine the possible impact of mindfulness on willingness to try insect foods. We present the results of three studies—one correlational and two experimental—illustrating that mindfulness increases disgust and lowers willingness to try eating insects. On the one hand, this counters existing literature that mindfulness reduces emotional reactivity. On the other hand, it is in-line with mindfulness making one more aware and accepting of present and incoming information, which would conceivably include context-relevant emotions such as disgust in the case of eating insects that Western cultures see as disgusting. Our findings support the latter possibility. We situate our work within the literature on the various impacts of mindfulness on food choice. We also discuss implications for food sustainability practitioners.
Highlights
• Mindfulness makes one more aware of present and incoming information.
• Mindfulness is relevant to food choice and food sustainability issues.
• We study and test the impact of mindfulness on insect-eating attitudes.
• Mindfulness may increase disgust and reduce attitudes toward eating bugs.
• Results from three studies are consistent with this theorizing.
Abstract: Mindfulness, commonly associated with Buddhism, refers to the state of being aware, taking note of what is going on within oneself and outside of the world. In the current research, we examine the possible impact of mindfulness on willingness to try insect foods. We present the results of three studies—one correlational and two experimental—illustrating that mindfulness increases disgust and lowers willingness to try eating insects. On the one hand, this counters existing literature that mindfulness reduces emotional reactivity. On the other hand, it is in-line with mindfulness making one more aware and accepting of present and incoming information, which would conceivably include context-relevant emotions such as disgust in the case of eating insects that Western cultures see as disgusting. Our findings support the latter possibility. We situate our work within the literature on the various impacts of mindfulness on food choice. We also discuss implications for food sustainability practitioners.
Thursday, August 23, 2018
The Evolution of Human Female Sexual Orientation
The Evolution of Human Female Sexual Orientation. Austin John Jeffery et al. [in press, Evolutionary Psychological Science, July 2018]. http://toddkshackelford.com/downloads/Jeffery-et-al-EPS.pdf
Abstract: Female sexual orientation has received less theoretical and empirical attention than male sexual orientation and few reviews are devoted to female sexual orientation. Moreover, research investigating female sexual orientation often underappreciates insights afforded by evolutionary theory. This review begins with an overview of the literature on female sexual identification, sexual perception, sexual fluidity, sexual expression, and the biology of female sexual orientation. Female same-sex sexual behaviors in the non-human apes are then described, providing a comparative context for the following discussion of hypotheses for the evolution of human female same-sex sexual attractions and behaviors. These hypotheses are organized as byproduct hypotheses or adaptation hypotheses and we include discussions of dysfunction, heterosis, sexual antagonism, epigenetics, weak selection, self-domestication, sexual frustration, mate attraction, alloparenting, polygyny, and other topics. We conclude by highlighting the challenges posed by evolutionary studies of human psychology.
Keywords: evolution, female homosexuality, female sexuality, sexual orientation
Abstract: Female sexual orientation has received less theoretical and empirical attention than male sexual orientation and few reviews are devoted to female sexual orientation. Moreover, research investigating female sexual orientation often underappreciates insights afforded by evolutionary theory. This review begins with an overview of the literature on female sexual identification, sexual perception, sexual fluidity, sexual expression, and the biology of female sexual orientation. Female same-sex sexual behaviors in the non-human apes are then described, providing a comparative context for the following discussion of hypotheses for the evolution of human female same-sex sexual attractions and behaviors. These hypotheses are organized as byproduct hypotheses or adaptation hypotheses and we include discussions of dysfunction, heterosis, sexual antagonism, epigenetics, weak selection, self-domestication, sexual frustration, mate attraction, alloparenting, polygyny, and other topics. We conclude by highlighting the challenges posed by evolutionary studies of human psychology.
Keywords: evolution, female homosexuality, female sexuality, sexual orientation
Introduction of a machine translation system has significantly increased international trade on eBay, increasing exports by 17.5%; heterogeneous treatment effects are all consistent with a substantial reduction in translation-related search costs
Does Machine Translation Affect International Trade? Evidence from a Large Digital Platform. Erik Brynjolfsson, Xiang Hui, Meng Liu. NBER Working Paper No. 24917, Aug 2018. www.nber.org/papers/w24917
Abstract: Artificial intelligence (AI) is surpassing human performance in a growing number of domains. However, there is limited evidence of its economic effects. Using data from a digital platform, we study a key application of AI: machine translation. We find that the introduction of a machine translation system has significantly increased international trade on this platform, increasing exports by 17.5%. Furthermore, heterogeneous treatment effects are all consistent with a substantial reduction in translation-related search costs. Our results provide causal evidence that language barriers significantly hinder trade and that AI has already begun to improve economic efficiency in at least one domain.
Abstract: Artificial intelligence (AI) is surpassing human performance in a growing number of domains. However, there is limited evidence of its economic effects. Using data from a digital platform, we study a key application of AI: machine translation. We find that the introduction of a machine translation system has significantly increased international trade on this platform, increasing exports by 17.5%. Furthermore, heterogeneous treatment effects are all consistent with a substantial reduction in translation-related search costs. Our results provide causal evidence that language barriers significantly hinder trade and that AI has already begun to improve economic efficiency in at least one domain.
Physically attractive women had more intelligent husbands; a man's physical attractiveness was not associated with his wife’s intelligence; the results provide new information on cross-trait assortative mating
Cross-Trait Assortment for Intelligence and Physical Attractiveness. Curtis S. Dunkel et al. In press, Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, July 2018. http://toddkshackelford.com/downloads/Dunkel-et-al-EBS.pdf
Abstract: We investigated cross-trait assortative mating for the traits of physical attractiveness and intelligence using data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study. It was hypothesized that more physically attractive individuals would have a spouse that was more intelligent, but that this association would be moderated by sex. Specifically, we predicted that more physically attractive women would have more intelligent husbands, but that a man’s physical attractiveness would not predict his wife’s intelligence. The results of correlation and regression analyses were consistent with these predictions, although the effect sizes were small. Additionally, we identified an interaction in which women’s physical attractiveness was more strongly associated with their husbands’ intelligence for more intelligent women than for less intelligent women. We conclude with suggestions for further research addressing cross-trait assortative mating for physical attractiveness and intelligence.
Abstract: We investigated cross-trait assortative mating for the traits of physical attractiveness and intelligence using data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study. It was hypothesized that more physically attractive individuals would have a spouse that was more intelligent, but that this association would be moderated by sex. Specifically, we predicted that more physically attractive women would have more intelligent husbands, but that a man’s physical attractiveness would not predict his wife’s intelligence. The results of correlation and regression analyses were consistent with these predictions, although the effect sizes were small. Additionally, we identified an interaction in which women’s physical attractiveness was more strongly associated with their husbands’ intelligence for more intelligent women than for less intelligent women. We conclude with suggestions for further research addressing cross-trait assortative mating for physical attractiveness and intelligence.
Exploring the Relationship Between Depression and Dementia
Exploring the Relationship Between Depression and Dementia. Rita Rubin. JAMA. Published online August 22, 2018. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.11154
Diagnosing and treating depression in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or with dementia presents special challenges, but doing so can improve the quality of their lives as well as the lives of their caregivers and, in the case of MCI, might even delay progression to dementia.
Image description not available.
Researchers are still trying to tease out the relationship between depression and dementia. While depression does not appear to cause dementia, it likely is a risk factor, just as dementia is a risk factor for depression, said George Alexopoulos, MD, founder and director of the Weill-Cornell Institute of Geriatric Psychiatry. At least 20% of people with dementia develop a depressive syndrome, Alexopoulos said.
Often, though, the depression comes first. Some studies suggest that depression in early life is a risk factor for dementia, while depression later in life can be a prodrome of dementia, Alexopoulos said. Although findings are mixed, a 2014 review of the literature concluded that there is convincing evidence to suggest that depression can be a risk factor and a prodromal symptom of dementia.
In a more recent large longitudinal cohort study published in 2017 in JAMA Psychiatry, researchers followed the trajectory of depressive symptoms and dementia in 10 189 UK men and women over 28 years. Unlike some previous studies, this one found that depressive symptoms in midlife, even if chronic or recurring, were not associated with an increased risk of dementia. However, participants with depressive symptoms later in life had a higher risk of dementia. Depressive symptoms appear to be a prodromal feature of dementia or, perhaps, share common causes, such as neurodegeneration and inflammation, but they do not appear to increase the risk of dementia, according to the authors.
In contrast, another longitudinal study involving 4992 older Australian men, published 2 months earlier, found that those who had a history of depression earlier in life did have a higher risk of dementia than those who did not. However, the association was greater in men who were depressed when they entered the study. Treatment with antidepressants did not decrease the risk of depression-associated dementia, leading the authors to conclude that late-life depression should be considered an early sign of dementia, not a modifiable risk factor.
“Any time you have the first episode (of depression) at a later age, that’s always concerning for a neurodegenerative disorder,” said Anna Burke, MD, a geriatric psychiatrist and the director of neuropsychiatry at Barrow Neurological Institute in Phoenix, who was not involved with either study.
Raj Shah, MD, an associate professor of family medicine with the Rush University Alzheimer Disease Center in Chicago, recommends that a first episode of depression in older individuals be considered a sentinel event, the same way a fall is. Both events should spur questions about whether patients need to have their medication adjusted or whether the fall or the mood change is a marker of other conditions, Shah said.
Difficult Diagnosis
Depression is often overlooked when it accompanies dementia, Burke said.
“The problem is the DSM-5 [Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition)] criteria we use for major depressive disorder don’t necessarily fit for this population, much like in children, where depression presents differently,” she said.
As with children, adults living with dementia and depression might not talk about emotional pain or feeling down, Burke said. Instead, they might exhibit irritability—“they may just get a little more feisty,” she said—and an increase in somatic symptoms, such as aches and pains and gastrointestinal complaints.
“Sometimes people don’t get diagnosed with depression because there is such a huge overlap in symptoms between depression and dementia as well as growing older,” Burke said. Symptoms common to both depression and dementia include loss of interest in activities and hobbies, social withdrawal, and impaired thinking.
Because the symptoms overlap, caregivers might not recognize depression in people with dementia. “I’m often the first person to bring it up,” Burke said. “Even when people do seek treatment in the community, many physicians are not focused on treating anything beyond the memory changes. Nobody ever really discusses the behavioral changes, the changes in mood.”
Still, Alexopoulos said, “If you see the patient at the wrong time, you may miss it. Patients with dementia underreport depression, and caregivers are unreliable reporters.”
As David Steffens, MD, MHS, explained, “It’s hard to notice a change in mood when somebody can’t really voice how they’re feeling.”
But that doesn’t mean depression is insignificant in the setting of dementia. “One reason to treat depression is that depression makes underlying cognitive impairment much worse,” said Steffens, chairman of psychiatry at the University of Connecticut. “You want to give them their best cognitive chance.” Besides antidepressants, he said, psychiatrists have sometimes used electroconvulsive therapy to treat severe depression in people with mild dementia.
Drug Therapy
The prescribing of antidepressants to people with dementia appears to be increasing, according to a UK study published in 2017. Trends in diagnosis and treatment of people with dementia suggest that the proportion prescribed antidepressants rose from 28% to 36.6% from 2005 to 2015.
Antidepressants don’t seem to work as well in people with dementia, possibly because “depression in dementia is a different illness” than depression in people with normal cognition, Alexopoulos said. Cognitive control dysfunction in dementia appears to decrease the effectiveness of some selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), he and his coauthors wrote in a 2015 article. “I think it is appropriate to try to treat with as little medication as you can,” in part because polypharmacy can lead to delirium syndromes in patients with dementia, Alexopoulos said.
Although the study of Australian men found that taking antidepressants did not reduce the risk of depression-associated dementia, recent research suggests that the drugs might slow the progression to dementia in people with MCI and depression. That study, published in 2017, found that taking the antidepressant citalopram (Celexa), an SSRI, for more than 4 years was associated with a delay in progression from MCI to Alzheimer disease by about 3 years. “Three years is a big deal in this age group,” Alexopoulos said. Experiments in mice and healthy humans have shown that citalopram reduces amyloid plaque, one of the hallmarks of Alzheimer disease.
Treating depression in people with MCI with antidepressants might slow the progression to dementia, but little is known about whether drugs and other interventions developed to treat Alzheimer disease have any effect on depression.
Most clinical trials of potential Alzheimer disease treatments do not consider neuropsychiatric symptoms such as depression or irritability as primary research targets, even though “these symptoms are widely recognized as the most stressful and challenging manifestations of dementia,” concluded authors of a recent review article. Only 17.7% of the relevant studies they found on clinicaltrials.gov tested the effect of pharmacological or nonpharmacological interventions on neuropsychiatric symptoms, they wrote.
Beyond Medication and Talk Therapy
People with MCI might still be able to benefit from cognitive behavioral therapy or psychotherapy, but that becomes less likely as they decline, Burke said. “A huge part of psychotherapy is being able to remember what happened in a session.”
Even individuals whose dementia is too advanced for talk therapy can still benefit from lifestyle changes, though, Burke said. Engaging them in social activities and modifying their environment to minimize triggers that make them anxious or irritable can help improve their quality of life, she said.
A recent pilot study suggested that increasing exposure to daylight can reduce depression in people with dementia. The 12-week study involved 77 people living in 8 dementia care communities. At 4 of the communities, staff took study participants to a room with windows for socialization from 8 am to 10 am each day. At the other 4 communities, staff took study participants to socialize in the mornings in a room illuminated only with typical artificial light.
At the end of the study, participants who had socialized in the rooms with daylight had a statistically significant decrease in their scores on the Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia, while the other participants did not. More studies are needed to determine the appropriate timing, duration, wavelength, and intensity of light exposure for adults with dementia, the researchers concluded.
Another recent study suggested a perceived lack of social engagement is also associated with depressive symptoms in people with dementia. Researchers measured social engagement, medication use, and depressive symptoms in 402 community-dwelling adults whose average age was 86 years. The data were collected during the first interview at which the participants met the criteria for a dementia diagnosis. The researchers found a link between perceived social isolation and the severity of depressive symptoms but not between antidepressant use and severity of depressive symptoms.
Because the study participants were newly diagnosed, their dementia was mild to moderate. “At that stage, people can still engage,” coauthor Shah said. “If we break down some of the stigma around the diagnosis of dementia, it will help people build cultures of support and inclusiveness.”
Diagnosing and treating depression in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or with dementia presents special challenges, but doing so can improve the quality of their lives as well as the lives of their caregivers and, in the case of MCI, might even delay progression to dementia.
Image description not available.
Researchers are still trying to tease out the relationship between depression and dementia. While depression does not appear to cause dementia, it likely is a risk factor, just as dementia is a risk factor for depression, said George Alexopoulos, MD, founder and director of the Weill-Cornell Institute of Geriatric Psychiatry. At least 20% of people with dementia develop a depressive syndrome, Alexopoulos said.
Often, though, the depression comes first. Some studies suggest that depression in early life is a risk factor for dementia, while depression later in life can be a prodrome of dementia, Alexopoulos said. Although findings are mixed, a 2014 review of the literature concluded that there is convincing evidence to suggest that depression can be a risk factor and a prodromal symptom of dementia.
In a more recent large longitudinal cohort study published in 2017 in JAMA Psychiatry, researchers followed the trajectory of depressive symptoms and dementia in 10 189 UK men and women over 28 years. Unlike some previous studies, this one found that depressive symptoms in midlife, even if chronic or recurring, were not associated with an increased risk of dementia. However, participants with depressive symptoms later in life had a higher risk of dementia. Depressive symptoms appear to be a prodromal feature of dementia or, perhaps, share common causes, such as neurodegeneration and inflammation, but they do not appear to increase the risk of dementia, according to the authors.
In contrast, another longitudinal study involving 4992 older Australian men, published 2 months earlier, found that those who had a history of depression earlier in life did have a higher risk of dementia than those who did not. However, the association was greater in men who were depressed when they entered the study. Treatment with antidepressants did not decrease the risk of depression-associated dementia, leading the authors to conclude that late-life depression should be considered an early sign of dementia, not a modifiable risk factor.
“Any time you have the first episode (of depression) at a later age, that’s always concerning for a neurodegenerative disorder,” said Anna Burke, MD, a geriatric psychiatrist and the director of neuropsychiatry at Barrow Neurological Institute in Phoenix, who was not involved with either study.
Raj Shah, MD, an associate professor of family medicine with the Rush University Alzheimer Disease Center in Chicago, recommends that a first episode of depression in older individuals be considered a sentinel event, the same way a fall is. Both events should spur questions about whether patients need to have their medication adjusted or whether the fall or the mood change is a marker of other conditions, Shah said.
Difficult Diagnosis
Depression is often overlooked when it accompanies dementia, Burke said.
“The problem is the DSM-5 [Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition)] criteria we use for major depressive disorder don’t necessarily fit for this population, much like in children, where depression presents differently,” she said.
As with children, adults living with dementia and depression might not talk about emotional pain or feeling down, Burke said. Instead, they might exhibit irritability—“they may just get a little more feisty,” she said—and an increase in somatic symptoms, such as aches and pains and gastrointestinal complaints.
“Sometimes people don’t get diagnosed with depression because there is such a huge overlap in symptoms between depression and dementia as well as growing older,” Burke said. Symptoms common to both depression and dementia include loss of interest in activities and hobbies, social withdrawal, and impaired thinking.
Because the symptoms overlap, caregivers might not recognize depression in people with dementia. “I’m often the first person to bring it up,” Burke said. “Even when people do seek treatment in the community, many physicians are not focused on treating anything beyond the memory changes. Nobody ever really discusses the behavioral changes, the changes in mood.”
Still, Alexopoulos said, “If you see the patient at the wrong time, you may miss it. Patients with dementia underreport depression, and caregivers are unreliable reporters.”
As David Steffens, MD, MHS, explained, “It’s hard to notice a change in mood when somebody can’t really voice how they’re feeling.”
But that doesn’t mean depression is insignificant in the setting of dementia. “One reason to treat depression is that depression makes underlying cognitive impairment much worse,” said Steffens, chairman of psychiatry at the University of Connecticut. “You want to give them their best cognitive chance.” Besides antidepressants, he said, psychiatrists have sometimes used electroconvulsive therapy to treat severe depression in people with mild dementia.
Drug Therapy
The prescribing of antidepressants to people with dementia appears to be increasing, according to a UK study published in 2017. Trends in diagnosis and treatment of people with dementia suggest that the proportion prescribed antidepressants rose from 28% to 36.6% from 2005 to 2015.
Antidepressants don’t seem to work as well in people with dementia, possibly because “depression in dementia is a different illness” than depression in people with normal cognition, Alexopoulos said. Cognitive control dysfunction in dementia appears to decrease the effectiveness of some selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), he and his coauthors wrote in a 2015 article. “I think it is appropriate to try to treat with as little medication as you can,” in part because polypharmacy can lead to delirium syndromes in patients with dementia, Alexopoulos said.
Although the study of Australian men found that taking antidepressants did not reduce the risk of depression-associated dementia, recent research suggests that the drugs might slow the progression to dementia in people with MCI and depression. That study, published in 2017, found that taking the antidepressant citalopram (Celexa), an SSRI, for more than 4 years was associated with a delay in progression from MCI to Alzheimer disease by about 3 years. “Three years is a big deal in this age group,” Alexopoulos said. Experiments in mice and healthy humans have shown that citalopram reduces amyloid plaque, one of the hallmarks of Alzheimer disease.
Treating depression in people with MCI with antidepressants might slow the progression to dementia, but little is known about whether drugs and other interventions developed to treat Alzheimer disease have any effect on depression.
Most clinical trials of potential Alzheimer disease treatments do not consider neuropsychiatric symptoms such as depression or irritability as primary research targets, even though “these symptoms are widely recognized as the most stressful and challenging manifestations of dementia,” concluded authors of a recent review article. Only 17.7% of the relevant studies they found on clinicaltrials.gov tested the effect of pharmacological or nonpharmacological interventions on neuropsychiatric symptoms, they wrote.
Beyond Medication and Talk Therapy
People with MCI might still be able to benefit from cognitive behavioral therapy or psychotherapy, but that becomes less likely as they decline, Burke said. “A huge part of psychotherapy is being able to remember what happened in a session.”
Even individuals whose dementia is too advanced for talk therapy can still benefit from lifestyle changes, though, Burke said. Engaging them in social activities and modifying their environment to minimize triggers that make them anxious or irritable can help improve their quality of life, she said.
A recent pilot study suggested that increasing exposure to daylight can reduce depression in people with dementia. The 12-week study involved 77 people living in 8 dementia care communities. At 4 of the communities, staff took study participants to a room with windows for socialization from 8 am to 10 am each day. At the other 4 communities, staff took study participants to socialize in the mornings in a room illuminated only with typical artificial light.
At the end of the study, participants who had socialized in the rooms with daylight had a statistically significant decrease in their scores on the Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia, while the other participants did not. More studies are needed to determine the appropriate timing, duration, wavelength, and intensity of light exposure for adults with dementia, the researchers concluded.
Another recent study suggested a perceived lack of social engagement is also associated with depressive symptoms in people with dementia. Researchers measured social engagement, medication use, and depressive symptoms in 402 community-dwelling adults whose average age was 86 years. The data were collected during the first interview at which the participants met the criteria for a dementia diagnosis. The researchers found a link between perceived social isolation and the severity of depressive symptoms but not between antidepressant use and severity of depressive symptoms.
Because the study participants were newly diagnosed, their dementia was mild to moderate. “At that stage, people can still engage,” coauthor Shah said. “If we break down some of the stigma around the diagnosis of dementia, it will help people build cultures of support and inclusiveness.”
We assigned endowments to individuals who could spend all or part of those endowments on a charitable donation; consistent with our hypothesis, subjects may engage in charitable giving to signal their smarts
Giving to Charity to Signal Smarts Evidence from a Lab Experiment. Felipe Montano, Ricardo Perez-Truglia. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2018.08.004
Highlights
• We propose individuals give to charity to signal smarts.
• We designed a laboratory experiment to test this hypothesis.
• Individuals have to donate out of an endowment.
• We randomize the publicity of the donation.
• We randomize if the endowments are distributed at random or according to intelligence.
• We find suggestive evidence that donations are used to signal smarts.
Abstract: The literature on charitable giving suggests that individuals may use their charitable donations to signal their altruism or their income. We argue that, rather than signaling income per se, individuals may want to signal other unobservable characteristics that correlate to income, such as their intelligence. We designed a laboratory experiment to test this hypothesis. We assigned endowments to individuals who could spend all or part of those endowments on a charitable donation. We cross-randomized the visibility of donations and the individuals’ perceptions about the effect of intelligence on the allocation of endowments. We found that the effect of donation visibility on donation amounts depends sharply on whether the individuals perceive that endowments are determined by intelligence. This evidence suggests that, consistent with our hypothesis, subjects may engage in charitable giving to signal their smarts.
Highlights
• We propose individuals give to charity to signal smarts.
• We designed a laboratory experiment to test this hypothesis.
• Individuals have to donate out of an endowment.
• We randomize the publicity of the donation.
• We randomize if the endowments are distributed at random or according to intelligence.
• We find suggestive evidence that donations are used to signal smarts.
Abstract: The literature on charitable giving suggests that individuals may use their charitable donations to signal their altruism or their income. We argue that, rather than signaling income per se, individuals may want to signal other unobservable characteristics that correlate to income, such as their intelligence. We designed a laboratory experiment to test this hypothesis. We assigned endowments to individuals who could spend all or part of those endowments on a charitable donation. We cross-randomized the visibility of donations and the individuals’ perceptions about the effect of intelligence on the allocation of endowments. We found that the effect of donation visibility on donation amounts depends sharply on whether the individuals perceive that endowments are determined by intelligence. This evidence suggests that, consistent with our hypothesis, subjects may engage in charitable giving to signal their smarts.
Women not using the contraceptive pill (naturally cycling women) reported spending more time applying cosmetics than did women who use the contraceptive pill; the faces of these naturally cycling women were rated as wearing more cosmetics
Evidence That the Hormonal Contraceptive Pill Is Associated With Cosmetic Habits. Carlota Batres et al. Front. Psychol., Aug 23 2018, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01459
Abstract: Hormonal contraception is known to cause subtle but widespread behavioral changes. Here, we investigated whether changes in cosmetic habits are associated with use of the hormonal contraceptive pill. We photographed a sample of women (N = 36) who self-reported whether or not they use the contraceptive pill, as well as their cosmetic habits. A separate sample of participants (N = 143) rated how much makeup these target women appeared to be wearing. We found that women not using the contraceptive pill (i.e., naturally cycling women) reported spending more time applying cosmetics for an outing than did women who use the contraceptive pill. We also found that the faces of these naturally cycling women were rated as wearing more cosmetics than the faces of the women using the contraceptive pill. Thus, we found clear associations between contraceptive pill use and makeup use. This provides evidence consistent with the possibility that cosmetic habits, and grooming behaviors more generally, are affected by hormonal contraception.
Abstract: Hormonal contraception is known to cause subtle but widespread behavioral changes. Here, we investigated whether changes in cosmetic habits are associated with use of the hormonal contraceptive pill. We photographed a sample of women (N = 36) who self-reported whether or not they use the contraceptive pill, as well as their cosmetic habits. A separate sample of participants (N = 143) rated how much makeup these target women appeared to be wearing. We found that women not using the contraceptive pill (i.e., naturally cycling women) reported spending more time applying cosmetics for an outing than did women who use the contraceptive pill. We also found that the faces of these naturally cycling women were rated as wearing more cosmetics than the faces of the women using the contraceptive pill. Thus, we found clear associations between contraceptive pill use and makeup use. This provides evidence consistent with the possibility that cosmetic habits, and grooming behaviors more generally, are affected by hormonal contraception.
Is an amygdala necessary to experience and perceive fear? One potential mechanism for not perceiving fear is a failure to spontaneously attend to widened eyes, the most distinctive physical feature portrayed in symbolic fear expressions
Seeing Fear: It’s All in the Eyes? Lisa Feldman Barrett. Trends in Neurosciences, Volume 41, Issue 9, September 2018, Pages 559-563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2018.06.009
Abstract: Is an amygdala necessary to experience and perceive fear? Intriguing evidence comes from patient S.M. who lost her left and right amygdalae to disease. Initial testing suggested that S.M.’s most defining symptom was an inability to recognize fear in other people’s facial expressions. A fascinating paper by Adolphs and colleagues in 2005 examined one potential mechanism for this impairment: a failure to spontaneously attend to widened eyes, the most distinctive physical feature portrayed in symbolic fear expressions. This study helped to invigorate debates about the brain basis of fear and paved the way for a more nuanced understanding of amygdalar function.
Abstract: Is an amygdala necessary to experience and perceive fear? Intriguing evidence comes from patient S.M. who lost her left and right amygdalae to disease. Initial testing suggested that S.M.’s most defining symptom was an inability to recognize fear in other people’s facial expressions. A fascinating paper by Adolphs and colleagues in 2005 examined one potential mechanism for this impairment: a failure to spontaneously attend to widened eyes, the most distinctive physical feature portrayed in symbolic fear expressions. This study helped to invigorate debates about the brain basis of fear and paved the way for a more nuanced understanding of amygdalar function.
Wednesday, August 22, 2018
Extraordinary Altruists Exhibit Enhanced Self–Other Overlap in Neural Responses to Distress
Extraordinary Altruists Exhibit Enhanced Self–Other Overlap in Neural Responses to Distress. Kristin M. Brethel-Haurwitz et al. Psychological Science, https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618779590
Abstract: Shared neural representations during experienced and observed distress are hypothesized to reflect empathic neural simulation, which may support altruism. But the correspondence between real-world altruism and shared neural representations has not been directly tested, and empathy’s role in promoting altruism toward strangers has been questioned. Here, we show that individuals who have performed costly altruism (donating a kidney to a stranger; n = 25) exhibit greater self–other overlap than matched control participants (n = 27) in neural representations of pain and threat (fearful anticipation) in anterior insula (AI) during an empathic-pain paradigm. Altruists exhibited greater self–other correspondence in pain-related activation in left AI, highlighting that group-level overlap was supported by individual-level associations between empathic pain and firsthand pain. Altruists exhibited enhanced functional coupling of left AI with left midinsula during empathic pain and threat. Results show that heightened neural instantiations of empathy correspond to real-world altruism and highlight limitations of self-report.
Keywords: altruism, empathy, neural simulation, nondirected living kidney donation
Abstract: Shared neural representations during experienced and observed distress are hypothesized to reflect empathic neural simulation, which may support altruism. But the correspondence between real-world altruism and shared neural representations has not been directly tested, and empathy’s role in promoting altruism toward strangers has been questioned. Here, we show that individuals who have performed costly altruism (donating a kidney to a stranger; n = 25) exhibit greater self–other overlap than matched control participants (n = 27) in neural representations of pain and threat (fearful anticipation) in anterior insula (AI) during an empathic-pain paradigm. Altruists exhibited greater self–other correspondence in pain-related activation in left AI, highlighting that group-level overlap was supported by individual-level associations between empathic pain and firsthand pain. Altruists exhibited enhanced functional coupling of left AI with left midinsula during empathic pain and threat. Results show that heightened neural instantiations of empathy correspond to real-world altruism and highlight limitations of self-report.
Keywords: altruism, empathy, neural simulation, nondirected living kidney donation
Mate value: Kindness, & physical attraction desirability saturate at the 90th percentile, although we do not tire of them; but intelligence, & easygoingness are fastidious after the 90th percentile
Exceptional intelligence and easygoingness may hurt your prospects: Threshold effects for rated mate characteristics. Gilles E. Gignac, Clare L. Starbuck. British Journal of Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12342
Abstract: Prospective mate characteristics such as kindness, intelligence, easygoingness, and physical attraction are ranked consistently highly by both men and women. However, rank measurement does not allow for determinations of what level of a mate characteristic is rated most desirable. Based on a more informative percentile scale measurement approach, it was reported recently that mean desirability ratings of IQ in a prospective partner peaked at the 90th percentile, with a statistically significant reduction from the 90th to the 99th percentiles. The purpose of this investigation was to replicate the recently reported non‐linear desirability effect associated with IQ, in addition to the evaluation of three other valued mate characteristics: easygoing, kindness, and physical attraction. Based on a sample of 214 young adults, it was found that all four mate characteristics peaked at the 90th percentile. However, the IQ and easygoing mean desirability ratings evidenced statistically significant mean reductions across the 90th to the 99th percentiles, whereas kindness and physical attraction did not. Finally, the objectively and subjectively assessed intelligence of the participants was not found to be associated with the participants’ desirability ratings of IQ. We interpreted the results to be consistent with a broadly conceptualized threshold hypothesis, which states that the perceived benefits of valued mate characteristics may not extend beyond a certain point. However, mate characteristics such as intelligence and easygoing become somewhat less attractive at very elevated levels, at least based on preference ratings, for reasons that may be biological and/or psycho‐social in nature.
Abstract: Prospective mate characteristics such as kindness, intelligence, easygoingness, and physical attraction are ranked consistently highly by both men and women. However, rank measurement does not allow for determinations of what level of a mate characteristic is rated most desirable. Based on a more informative percentile scale measurement approach, it was reported recently that mean desirability ratings of IQ in a prospective partner peaked at the 90th percentile, with a statistically significant reduction from the 90th to the 99th percentiles. The purpose of this investigation was to replicate the recently reported non‐linear desirability effect associated with IQ, in addition to the evaluation of three other valued mate characteristics: easygoing, kindness, and physical attraction. Based on a sample of 214 young adults, it was found that all four mate characteristics peaked at the 90th percentile. However, the IQ and easygoing mean desirability ratings evidenced statistically significant mean reductions across the 90th to the 99th percentiles, whereas kindness and physical attraction did not. Finally, the objectively and subjectively assessed intelligence of the participants was not found to be associated with the participants’ desirability ratings of IQ. We interpreted the results to be consistent with a broadly conceptualized threshold hypothesis, which states that the perceived benefits of valued mate characteristics may not extend beyond a certain point. However, mate characteristics such as intelligence and easygoing become somewhat less attractive at very elevated levels, at least based on preference ratings, for reasons that may be biological and/or psycho‐social in nature.
Cleaner wrasse pass the mark test. What are the implications for consciousness and self-awareness testing in animals?
Cleaner wrasse pass the mark test. What are the implications for consciousness and self-awareness testing in animals? Masanori Kohda et al. bioRxiv, https://doi.org/10.1101/397067
Abstract: The ability to perceive and recognise a reflected mirror image as self (mirror self-recognition, MSR) is considered a hallmark of cognition across species. Although MSR has been reported in mammals and birds, it is not known to occur in any other major taxon. A factor potentially limiting the ability to test for MSR is that the established assay for MSR, the mark test, shows an interpretation bias towards animals with the dexterity (or limbs) required to touch a mark. Here, we show that the cleaner wrasse fish, Labroides dimidiatus, passes through all phases of the mark test: (i) social reactions towards the reflection, (ii) repeated idiosyncratic behaviours towards the mirror (contingency testing), and (iii) frequent observation of their reflection. When subsequently provided with a coloured tag, individuals attempt to remove the mark in the presence of a mirror but show no response towards transparent marks, or to coloured marks in the absence of a mirror. This remarkable finding presents a challenge to our interpretation of the mark test – do we accept that these behavioural responses in the mark test, which are taken as evidence of self-recognition in other species, mean that fish are self-aware? Or do we conclude that these behavioural patterns have a basis in a cognitive process other than self-recognition? If the former, what does this mean for our understanding of animal intelligence? If the latter, what does this mean for our application and interpretation of the mark test as a metric for animal cognitive abilities?
Abstract: The ability to perceive and recognise a reflected mirror image as self (mirror self-recognition, MSR) is considered a hallmark of cognition across species. Although MSR has been reported in mammals and birds, it is not known to occur in any other major taxon. A factor potentially limiting the ability to test for MSR is that the established assay for MSR, the mark test, shows an interpretation bias towards animals with the dexterity (or limbs) required to touch a mark. Here, we show that the cleaner wrasse fish, Labroides dimidiatus, passes through all phases of the mark test: (i) social reactions towards the reflection, (ii) repeated idiosyncratic behaviours towards the mirror (contingency testing), and (iii) frequent observation of their reflection. When subsequently provided with a coloured tag, individuals attempt to remove the mark in the presence of a mirror but show no response towards transparent marks, or to coloured marks in the absence of a mirror. This remarkable finding presents a challenge to our interpretation of the mark test – do we accept that these behavioural responses in the mark test, which are taken as evidence of self-recognition in other species, mean that fish are self-aware? Or do we conclude that these behavioural patterns have a basis in a cognitive process other than self-recognition? If the former, what does this mean for our understanding of animal intelligence? If the latter, what does this mean for our application and interpretation of the mark test as a metric for animal cognitive abilities?
Tuesday, August 21, 2018
Election Outcome and Tax Compliance: The Role of Political Party Affiliation, Affect Balance, and Trust in Government
Election Outcome and Tax Compliance: The Role of Political Party Affiliation, Affect Balance, and Trust in Government. Nicholas C. Hunt, Govind S. Iyer, Peggy Jimenez. Applied Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12165
Abstract: The present study examines partisan reactions to Presidential election outcomes. Our model investigates the interactive role of political party affiliation on the relationship between identification with the winning party and affect balance. We subsequently examine how tax compliance intentions are influenced by this moderation relationship through affect balance and trust in government. We conducted a quasi‐experiment one week prior to the first mass 2016 presidential primary, where 12 of the 50 U.S. states voted to decide which candidates would represent the republican and democratic parties in the 2016 U.S. Presidential election. Our sample consisted of 205 Republicans and Democrats. We manipulated press releases showing various presidential candidates winning the presidency to examine how matches / mismatches between partisans’ political party affiliation and the party winning the election influence citizens’ overall feelings, beliefs, and intentions. We find election outcomes generate significant overall positive or negative feelings (i.e. affect balance) among partisans, which influences beliefs about trust in government, and subsequently their tax compliance intentions. Political party moderates the relationship between election outcomes and affect balance in such a way that democrats experience greater overall positive affect balance when their party wins the election compared to republicans.
Abstract: The present study examines partisan reactions to Presidential election outcomes. Our model investigates the interactive role of political party affiliation on the relationship between identification with the winning party and affect balance. We subsequently examine how tax compliance intentions are influenced by this moderation relationship through affect balance and trust in government. We conducted a quasi‐experiment one week prior to the first mass 2016 presidential primary, where 12 of the 50 U.S. states voted to decide which candidates would represent the republican and democratic parties in the 2016 U.S. Presidential election. Our sample consisted of 205 Republicans and Democrats. We manipulated press releases showing various presidential candidates winning the presidency to examine how matches / mismatches between partisans’ political party affiliation and the party winning the election influence citizens’ overall feelings, beliefs, and intentions. We find election outcomes generate significant overall positive or negative feelings (i.e. affect balance) among partisans, which influences beliefs about trust in government, and subsequently their tax compliance intentions. Political party moderates the relationship between election outcomes and affect balance in such a way that democrats experience greater overall positive affect balance when their party wins the election compared to republicans.
For girls, sought-after schools reduce teen motherhood, increase educational attainment, increase earnings, & improve health; for boys, the results are mixed
Do Parents Know Best? The Short and Long-Run Effects of Attending The Schools that Parents Prefer. Diether W. Beuermann, C. Kirabo Jackson. NBER Working Paper No. 24920. www.nber.org/papers/w24920
Abstract: Recent studies document that, in many cases, sought after schools do not improve student test scores. Three explanations are that (i) existing studies identify local average treatment effects that do not generalize to the average student, (ii) parents cannot discern schools’ causal impacts, and (iii) parents value schools that improve outcomes not well measured by test scores. To shed light on this, we employ administrative and survey data from Barbados. Using discrete choice models, we document that most parents have strong preferences for the same schools. Using a regression-discontinuity design, we estimate the causal impact of attending a preferred school on a broad array of outcomes. As found in other settings, preferred schools have better peers, but do not improve short-run test scores. We implement a new statistical test and find that this null effect is not due to school impacts being different for marginal students than for the average student. Looking at longer-run outcomes, for girls, preferred schools reduce teen motherhood, increase educational attainment, increase earnings, and improve health. In contrast, for boys, the results are mixed. The pattern for girls is consistent with parents valuing school impacts on outcomes not well measured by test scores, while the pattern for boys is consistent with parents being unable to identify schools’ causal impacts. Our results indicate that impacts on test scores may be an incomplete measure of school quality.
Abstract: Recent studies document that, in many cases, sought after schools do not improve student test scores. Three explanations are that (i) existing studies identify local average treatment effects that do not generalize to the average student, (ii) parents cannot discern schools’ causal impacts, and (iii) parents value schools that improve outcomes not well measured by test scores. To shed light on this, we employ administrative and survey data from Barbados. Using discrete choice models, we document that most parents have strong preferences for the same schools. Using a regression-discontinuity design, we estimate the causal impact of attending a preferred school on a broad array of outcomes. As found in other settings, preferred schools have better peers, but do not improve short-run test scores. We implement a new statistical test and find that this null effect is not due to school impacts being different for marginal students than for the average student. Looking at longer-run outcomes, for girls, preferred schools reduce teen motherhood, increase educational attainment, increase earnings, and improve health. In contrast, for boys, the results are mixed. The pattern for girls is consistent with parents valuing school impacts on outcomes not well measured by test scores, while the pattern for boys is consistent with parents being unable to identify schools’ causal impacts. Our results indicate that impacts on test scores may be an incomplete measure of school quality.
The idea of the media as immoral, government-controlled and manipulative is essentially rooted in populist attitudes rather than in left-wing or right-wing attitudes; these people are not only angry, but also more politically active and do more often express their opinion in the media
Johanna Schindler, Claudia Fortkord, Lone Posthumus, Magdalena Obermaier, Nayla, Fawzi, Carsten Reinemann, Where does media hostility lead from? On the connection between populist attitudes, media hostility, negative emotions and participation (title autamtically translated from: Woher kommt und wozu führt Medienfeindlichkeit? Zum Zusammenhang von populistischen Einstellungen, Medienfeindlichkeit, negativen Emotionen und Partizipation) in: M&K Medien & Kommunikationswissenschaft, Seite 283 - 301. M&K, Jahrgang 66 (2018), Heft 3, ISSN print: 1615-634X, ISSN online: 1615-634X, DOI: 10.5771/1615-634X-2018-3-283
Abstract: Sensing an increase in hate speech and physical aggression against journalists, we see a new level of hostility towards the media, and with it potentially far-reaching consequences for society in general. However, little is known so far about both the individual causes of media hostility and its influence on individual media-related emotions and behaviour. We set out to determine the influence of populist attitudes, i.e. the significance of the idea of a homogenous, ‘good’ people v an ‘evil’ elite on media hostility. Our study, moreover, examines the broader consequence of hostile attitudes towards the media. Drawing on data from an online survey with 1,102 participants, we show how the idea of the media as immoral, government-controlled and manipulative is essentially rooted in populist attitudes rather than in left-wing or right-wing attitudes. The effects of populist attitudes on the level of media hostility can be seen to be mediated partially by the level of the perceived representation of participants’ own interests in the media, and by the use of alternative media. People showing hostile attitudes towards the media are not only angry, but they are also more politically active and do more often express their opinion in the media.
Abstract: Sensing an increase in hate speech and physical aggression against journalists, we see a new level of hostility towards the media, and with it potentially far-reaching consequences for society in general. However, little is known so far about both the individual causes of media hostility and its influence on individual media-related emotions and behaviour. We set out to determine the influence of populist attitudes, i.e. the significance of the idea of a homogenous, ‘good’ people v an ‘evil’ elite on media hostility. Our study, moreover, examines the broader consequence of hostile attitudes towards the media. Drawing on data from an online survey with 1,102 participants, we show how the idea of the media as immoral, government-controlled and manipulative is essentially rooted in populist attitudes rather than in left-wing or right-wing attitudes. The effects of populist attitudes on the level of media hostility can be seen to be mediated partially by the level of the perceived representation of participants’ own interests in the media, and by the use of alternative media. People showing hostile attitudes towards the media are not only angry, but they are also more politically active and do more often express their opinion in the media.
Gender equality & sex differences in personality, & evidence from a large, multi-national sample: Bigger differences when gender equality is greater
Gender equality and sex differences in personality: evidence from a large, multi-national sample. Tim Kaiser, Univ of Salzburg. July 2018. DOI: 10.17605/OSF.IO/6NUHX
Aim: findings on sex differences in personality are robust and stable across countries. Previous studies have also shown that these differences are greater in countries with greater gender equality. However, earlier studies have shortcomings as they either (a) did not use valid indicators of gender equality and development, (b) only studied broad domains of personality, (c) did not address issues of measurement invariance. The aim of this study is to replicate previous findings on the correlation between gender equality and sex differences in a methodologically robust way. Method: a large, multinational (N = 926,383) dataset was used to examine sex differences in Big Five facet scores for 70 countries. Difference scores were aggregated to a multivariate effect size (Mahalanobis' D).
Results: effect sizes were large (average D = 1.96), but varied across countries. Countries' difference scores were related to an index of gender equality, revealing a positive weighted correlation of r = .335.
Conclusion: using multivariate effect sizes derived from latent scores with invariance constraints, the study of sex differences in personality becomes more robust und replicable. Sex differences in personality should not be interpreted as results of unequal treatment, but as indicator of successful gender equality policies.
Aim: findings on sex differences in personality are robust and stable across countries. Previous studies have also shown that these differences are greater in countries with greater gender equality. However, earlier studies have shortcomings as they either (a) did not use valid indicators of gender equality and development, (b) only studied broad domains of personality, (c) did not address issues of measurement invariance. The aim of this study is to replicate previous findings on the correlation between gender equality and sex differences in a methodologically robust way. Method: a large, multinational (N = 926,383) dataset was used to examine sex differences in Big Five facet scores for 70 countries. Difference scores were aggregated to a multivariate effect size (Mahalanobis' D).
Results: effect sizes were large (average D = 1.96), but varied across countries. Countries' difference scores were related to an index of gender equality, revealing a positive weighted correlation of r = .335.
Conclusion: using multivariate effect sizes derived from latent scores with invariance constraints, the study of sex differences in personality becomes more robust und replicable. Sex differences in personality should not be interpreted as results of unequal treatment, but as indicator of successful gender equality policies.
Many studies have revealed the existence of intimate partner violence among lesbian and gay couples, & its incidence is comparable to (Turell, 2000) or higher than that among heterosexual couples (Messinger, 2011; Kelley et al., 2012)
When Intimate Partner Violence Meets Same Sex Couples: A Review of Same Sex Intimate Partner Violence. Luca Rollè, Giulia Giardina, Angela M. Caldarera, Eva Gerino and Piera Brustia. Front. Psychol., August 21 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01506
Abstract: Over the past few decades, the causes of and intervention for intimate partner violence (IPV) have been approached and studied. This paper presents a narrative review on IPV occurring in same sex couples, that is, same sex IPV (SSIPV). Despite the myth that IPV is exclusively an issue in heterosexual relationships, many studies have revealed the existence of IPV among lesbian and gay couples, and its incidence is comparable to (Turell, 2000) or higher than that among heterosexual couples (Messinger, 2011; Kelley et al., 2012). While similarities between heterosexual and lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) IPV were found, unique features and dynamics were present in LGB IPV. Such features are mainly related to identification and treatment of SSIPV in the community and to the need of taking into consideration the role of sexual minority stressors. Our findings show there is a lack of studies that address LGB individuals involved in IPV; this is mostly due to the silence that has historically existed around violence in the LGB community, a silence built on fears and myths that have obstructed a public discussion on the phenomenon. We identified the main themes discussed in the published studies that we have reviewed here. The reviews lead us to the conclusion that it is essential to create a place where this subject can be freely discussed and approached, both by LGB and heterosexual people.
Abstract: Over the past few decades, the causes of and intervention for intimate partner violence (IPV) have been approached and studied. This paper presents a narrative review on IPV occurring in same sex couples, that is, same sex IPV (SSIPV). Despite the myth that IPV is exclusively an issue in heterosexual relationships, many studies have revealed the existence of IPV among lesbian and gay couples, and its incidence is comparable to (Turell, 2000) or higher than that among heterosexual couples (Messinger, 2011; Kelley et al., 2012). While similarities between heterosexual and lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) IPV were found, unique features and dynamics were present in LGB IPV. Such features are mainly related to identification and treatment of SSIPV in the community and to the need of taking into consideration the role of sexual minority stressors. Our findings show there is a lack of studies that address LGB individuals involved in IPV; this is mostly due to the silence that has historically existed around violence in the LGB community, a silence built on fears and myths that have obstructed a public discussion on the phenomenon. We identified the main themes discussed in the published studies that we have reviewed here. The reviews lead us to the conclusion that it is essential to create a place where this subject can be freely discussed and approached, both by LGB and heterosexual people.
Thirsty participants in a dictator's game share water more often equally with powerless, anonymous others than they do money, even when they earned both types of rewards previously; so that altruistic behavior is more likely to occur when it comes to sharing primary rewards
How selfish is a thirsty man? A pilot study on comparing sharing behavior with primary and secondary rewards. Astrid Kause, Oliver Vitouch, Judith Glück. PLOS One, August 20, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201358
Abstract: Human social interactions in daily life involve sharing various types of rewards. Previous research evolving around issues of selfish versus altruistic behavior indicates that when individuals share rewards like money with powerless others, some are purely selfish while a substantial number shares evenly. It is, however, mostly unknown how they share primary rewards like water, compared to secondary rewards like money. We adopt the widely studied Dictator Game for comparing water to be divided among study participants with a monetary reward. We show that thirsty participants share water more often equally with powerless, anonymous others than they do money. This is the case even when they earned both types of rewards in a preceding task. Results indicate that altruistic behavior is more likely to occur when it comes to sharing primary rewards. The ecologically more valid scenario employed in this study provides initial evidence that the concept of a self-interested homo economicus might not apply to everyday social interactions involving rewards other than money.
Abstract: Human social interactions in daily life involve sharing various types of rewards. Previous research evolving around issues of selfish versus altruistic behavior indicates that when individuals share rewards like money with powerless others, some are purely selfish while a substantial number shares evenly. It is, however, mostly unknown how they share primary rewards like water, compared to secondary rewards like money. We adopt the widely studied Dictator Game for comparing water to be divided among study participants with a monetary reward. We show that thirsty participants share water more often equally with powerless, anonymous others than they do money. This is the case even when they earned both types of rewards in a preceding task. Results indicate that altruistic behavior is more likely to occur when it comes to sharing primary rewards. The ecologically more valid scenario employed in this study provides initial evidence that the concept of a self-interested homo economicus might not apply to everyday social interactions involving rewards other than money.
We analyzed people’s ratings of whiskies featured at different serial positions in the tastings; we found a recency effect: people gave their highest rating to whiskies in the last position, and voted the last whisky as their favorite more frequently
In the real world, people prefer their last whisky when tasting options in a long sequence. Adele Quigley-McBride et al. PLOS One, August 20, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202732
Abstract: When people in laboratory studies sample products in a sequence, they tend to prefer options presented first and last. To what extent do these primacy and recency effects carry over to real-world settings where numerous sources of information determine preferences? To investigate this question, we coded archival data from 136 actual whisky tastings each featuring seven whiskies. We analyzed people’s ratings of whiskies featured at different serial positions in the tastings. We found a recency effect: people gave their highest rating to whiskies in the last position, and voted the last whisky as their favorite more frequently. This recency effect persisted when we controlled for the counter explanation that whiskies with higher alcohol content tended to occupy later serial positions. The recency effect also persisted when we controlled for the age of the whiskies. Taken together, our findings suggest that the order of presentation matters in real-world settings, closely resembling what happens in laboratory settings with longer sequences of options.
Abstract: When people in laboratory studies sample products in a sequence, they tend to prefer options presented first and last. To what extent do these primacy and recency effects carry over to real-world settings where numerous sources of information determine preferences? To investigate this question, we coded archival data from 136 actual whisky tastings each featuring seven whiskies. We analyzed people’s ratings of whiskies featured at different serial positions in the tastings. We found a recency effect: people gave their highest rating to whiskies in the last position, and voted the last whisky as their favorite more frequently. This recency effect persisted when we controlled for the counter explanation that whiskies with higher alcohol content tended to occupy later serial positions. The recency effect also persisted when we controlled for the age of the whiskies. Taken together, our findings suggest that the order of presentation matters in real-world settings, closely resembling what happens in laboratory settings with longer sequences of options.
Monday, August 20, 2018
Plutarch already said it: Pay less attention to the social networks...
Speaking of the Twitter of his era, Plutarch said:
This doesn't mean he was consistent... But the comment is quite valid still, IMHO.
Plutarch, De curiositate, 520d-e. Available at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0290%3Astephpage%3D520d. Translation in
'Graffiti and the Literary Landscape in Roman Pompeii,' by Kristina Milnor. Oxford University Press, Jan 2014, page 273.
"τί γὰρ χαλεπόν ἐστιν ἐν ταῖς ὁδοῖς τὰς ἐπὶ τῶν τάφων ἐπιγραφὰς μὴ ἀναγιγνώσκειν, ἢ τί δυσχερὲς ἐν τοῖς περιπάτοις τὰ κατὰ τῶν τοίχων γράμματα (or ἐπιγράμματα) τῇ ὄψει παρατρέχειν, ὑποβάλλοντας αὑτοῖς ὅτι χρήσιμον οὐδὲν οὐδ᾽ ἐπιτερπὲς ἐν τούτοις γέγραπται: ἀλλ᾽ ‘ἐμνήσθη’ ὁ δεῖνα τοῦ δεῖνος ἐπ᾽ ἀγαθῷ καὶ ‘φίλων ἄριστος’ ὅδε τις, καὶ πολλὰ τοιαύτης γέμοντα φλυαρίας: ἃ δοκεῖ μὲν οὐ βλάπτειν ἀναγιγνωσκόμενα, βλάπτει δὲ λεληθότως τῷ μελέτην παρεμποιεῖν τοῦ ζητεῖν τὰ μὴ προσήκοντα;".
Approx: For what is difficult in not noticing the inscriptions on tombstones along the roadways, or what is vexatious about passing over with your eye as you wander about those writings in the walls, as we suggest to ourselves that there is nothing written in them which is either useful or pleasing -- only so-and-so 'remembers' so-and-so, and 'wishes him the best', and is 'the best of friends', and many things full of such ridiculousness? Giving attention to such things may not seem to hurt, but the harm comes from creating the desire to search out things which are not your business.
This doesn't mean he was consistent... But the comment is quite valid still, IMHO.
Plutarch, De curiositate, 520d-e. Available at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0290%3Astephpage%3D520d. Translation in
'Graffiti and the Literary Landscape in Roman Pompeii,' by Kristina Milnor. Oxford University Press, Jan 2014, page 273.
People think about the future more often than the past (30% compared to 13%), and prospective memory occupies our thoughts approximately 13–15% of the time, of which 61% were internally cued, rather than externally triggered
Hey buddy, why don’t we take it outside: An experience sampling study of prospective memory. Francis T. Anderson, Mark A. McDaniel. Memory & Cognition, https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13421-018-0849-x
Abstract: Relatively little research has focused on how prospective memory (PM) operates outside of the laboratory, partially due to the methodological problems presented by naturalistic memory research in general and by the unique challenges of PM in particular. Experience sampling methods (ESM) offer a fruitful avenue for this type of research, as recent work from Gardner and Ascoli (Psychology and Aging, 30, 209-219, 2015) has shown. They found that people thought about PM around 15% of the time, and that future thinking was more common than past thinking. In two studies, we replicated our own findings and those reported by Gardner and Ascoli. To summarize, people think about the future more often than the past (30% compared to 13%), and PM occupies our thoughts approximately 13–15% of the time, supporting claims made by some researchers that our episodic memory systems are forward-looking (Klein in Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2, 222-234, 2013). Of those PM thoughts, participants reported that 61% were internally cued, rather than externally triggered. Through the use of multi-level modeling, we additionally found that PM thoughts were more likely when the respondant was alone than with people, and earlier in the day. Finally, we found that participants higher in neuroticism were more likely to report thinking of PM, and that this was driven entirely by the anxiety facet. Most generally, we hope to have demonstrated the value of ESM to help researchers investigate and understand naturalistic PM.
Abstract: Relatively little research has focused on how prospective memory (PM) operates outside of the laboratory, partially due to the methodological problems presented by naturalistic memory research in general and by the unique challenges of PM in particular. Experience sampling methods (ESM) offer a fruitful avenue for this type of research, as recent work from Gardner and Ascoli (Psychology and Aging, 30, 209-219, 2015) has shown. They found that people thought about PM around 15% of the time, and that future thinking was more common than past thinking. In two studies, we replicated our own findings and those reported by Gardner and Ascoli. To summarize, people think about the future more often than the past (30% compared to 13%), and PM occupies our thoughts approximately 13–15% of the time, supporting claims made by some researchers that our episodic memory systems are forward-looking (Klein in Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2, 222-234, 2013). Of those PM thoughts, participants reported that 61% were internally cued, rather than externally triggered. Through the use of multi-level modeling, we additionally found that PM thoughts were more likely when the respondant was alone than with people, and earlier in the day. Finally, we found that participants higher in neuroticism were more likely to report thinking of PM, and that this was driven entirely by the anxiety facet. Most generally, we hope to have demonstrated the value of ESM to help researchers investigate and understand naturalistic PM.
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