Dark Motives and Elective Use of Brainteaser Interview Questions. Scott Highhouse, Christopher D. Nye, Don C. Zhang. Applied Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12163
Abstract: Brainteaser interview questions such as “Estimate how many windows are in New York” are just one example of aggressive interviewer behaviour that lacks evidence for validity and is unsettling to job applicants. This research attempts to shed light on the motives behind such behaviour by examining the relation between dark‐side traits and the perceived appropriateness of brainteaser interview questions. A representative sample of working adults (n = 736) was presented with a list of interview questions that were either traditional (e.g., “Are you a good listener?”), behavioural (e.g., “Tell me about a time when you failed”), or brainteaser in nature. Results of a multiple regression, controlling for interviewing experience and sex, showed that narcissism and sadism explained the likelihood of using brainteasers in an interview. A subsequent bifactor analysis showed that these dark traits shared a callousness general factor. A second longitudinal study of employed adults with hiring experience demonstrated that perspective‐taking partially mediated the relationship between this general factor and the perceived helpfulness and abusiveness of brainteaser interview questions. These results suggest that a callous indifference and a lack of perspective‐taking may underlie abusive behaviour in the employment interview.
Friday, September 7, 2018
Gender Differences in Egalitarian Behavior and Attitudes in Early Childhood: Girls exhibited more egalitarian behavior than boys
Gender Differences in Egalitarian Behavior and Attitudes in Early Childhood. Joyce F. Benenson et al. Developmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12750
Abstract: It is axiomatic that human females are more egalitarian than males. However, surprisingly little empirical research exists that empirically assesses this stereotype. We created two studies designed to objectively examine egalitarian behavior in three‐ to five‐year‐old children. In Study 1 we compared the egalitarian behavior and attitudes of American girls versus boys by tabulating the extent to which each gender awarded the same number of stickers to and liked to the same degree two puppets. One puppet followed the child's instructions or actions while the other did not during a drawing task in which the child played the roles of leader and peer. In the peer role, girls exhibited more egalitarian behavior than boys. In Study 2, French‐Canadian children were shown two drawings by unknown peers‐ one messily and one neatly colored, then asked to distribute stickers to each peer's drawing. Again, girls exhibited more egalitarian behavior than boys. Results suggest the origins of gender differences in egalitarian behavior occur early in life and merit further investigation.
Abstract: It is axiomatic that human females are more egalitarian than males. However, surprisingly little empirical research exists that empirically assesses this stereotype. We created two studies designed to objectively examine egalitarian behavior in three‐ to five‐year‐old children. In Study 1 we compared the egalitarian behavior and attitudes of American girls versus boys by tabulating the extent to which each gender awarded the same number of stickers to and liked to the same degree two puppets. One puppet followed the child's instructions or actions while the other did not during a drawing task in which the child played the roles of leader and peer. In the peer role, girls exhibited more egalitarian behavior than boys. In Study 2, French‐Canadian children were shown two drawings by unknown peers‐ one messily and one neatly colored, then asked to distribute stickers to each peer's drawing. Again, girls exhibited more egalitarian behavior than boys. Results suggest the origins of gender differences in egalitarian behavior occur early in life and merit further investigation.
In childhood, amazingly, only recurrent animal cruelty & stabbing animals are predictive variables of later interpersonal violence, not drowning, hitting/beating, hitting with rocks, shooting, kicking, choking, burning, having sex, & starving/neglecting
The predictive ability of childhood animal cruelty methods for later interpersonal crimes. Christopher Hensley, Joseph B. Ketron. Behavioral Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2369
Abstract: Research on the topic of childhood animal cruelty methods and their link to interpersonal violence is sparse. Most of the studies that do exist focus only on the frequencies of different methods of childhood animal cruelty. Only two studies to date have examined the predictive nature of these methods for later violence toward humans. One of these previous studies found that drowning and having sex with animals were predictive of later human violence, while the other found that sex with animals and the age at which the offenders began committing animal cruelty were its only statistically significant predictors. Using data collected from 257 anonymous self‐reports by male inmates at a medium‐security prison in a Southern state, we investigate the predictive ability of several retrospectively identified childhood animal cruelty methods (i.e., drowning, hitting/beating, hitting with rocks, shooting, kicking, choking, burning, stabbing, having sex, and starving/neglecting) for later violent crimes toward humans. Regression analyses revealed that recurrent (i.e., more than once) childhood animal cruelty and stabbing animals were the only statistically significant variables in the model that predicted recurrent interpersonal violence in adulthood.
Abstract: Research on the topic of childhood animal cruelty methods and their link to interpersonal violence is sparse. Most of the studies that do exist focus only on the frequencies of different methods of childhood animal cruelty. Only two studies to date have examined the predictive nature of these methods for later violence toward humans. One of these previous studies found that drowning and having sex with animals were predictive of later human violence, while the other found that sex with animals and the age at which the offenders began committing animal cruelty were its only statistically significant predictors. Using data collected from 257 anonymous self‐reports by male inmates at a medium‐security prison in a Southern state, we investigate the predictive ability of several retrospectively identified childhood animal cruelty methods (i.e., drowning, hitting/beating, hitting with rocks, shooting, kicking, choking, burning, stabbing, having sex, and starving/neglecting) for later violent crimes toward humans. Regression analyses revealed that recurrent (i.e., more than once) childhood animal cruelty and stabbing animals were the only statistically significant variables in the model that predicted recurrent interpersonal violence in adulthood.
Heightening partisan ambivalence reduces affective polarization for ideological moderates, but increases such discord for those with more extreme ideological identities; efforts to depolarize the electorate can make it more deeply divided
When Efforts to Depolarize the Electorate Fail. Matthew S Levendusky. Public Opinion Quarterly, nfy036, https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfy036
Abstract: The mass public has become affectively polarized—ordinary Americans increasingly dislike and distrust those from the other party, with negative consequences for politics. Drawing on work in political and social psychology, this paper tests two mechanisms for reducing this discord, both of which have been shown to reduce similar biases in other settings: heightening partisan ambivalence, and using self-affirmation techniques. A population-based survey experiment shows that neither strategy reduces affective polarization in the aggregate. But this null finding masks an important heterogeneity: Heightening partisan ambivalence reduces affective polarization for ideological moderates, but increases such discord for those with more extreme ideological identities. Efforts to depolarize the electorate can make it more deeply divided, with important implications for our understanding of contemporary politics and the durability of affective polarization.
Abstract: The mass public has become affectively polarized—ordinary Americans increasingly dislike and distrust those from the other party, with negative consequences for politics. Drawing on work in political and social psychology, this paper tests two mechanisms for reducing this discord, both of which have been shown to reduce similar biases in other settings: heightening partisan ambivalence, and using self-affirmation techniques. A population-based survey experiment shows that neither strategy reduces affective polarization in the aggregate. But this null finding masks an important heterogeneity: Heightening partisan ambivalence reduces affective polarization for ideological moderates, but increases such discord for those with more extreme ideological identities. Efforts to depolarize the electorate can make it more deeply divided, with important implications for our understanding of contemporary politics and the durability of affective polarization.
Thursday, September 6, 2018
Dreams of teeth falling out: an empirical investigation of physiological and psychological correlates
Dreams of teeth falling out: an empirical investigation of physiological and psychological correlates. Naama Rozen & Nirit Soffer-Dudek. Front. Psychol., doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01812
Abstract: Teeth dreams (TD), i.e., dreams of teeth falling out or rotting, are one of the most common and universal typical dream themes, yet their source remains unknown and they have rarely been studied empirically. They are especially enigmatic as they do not readily fall under the rubric of the “continuity hypothesis”, i.e., dreams of current and salient waking-life experiences. The aim of the present study was to explore two possible hypotheses for the origin of TD; specifically, TD as incorporation of dental irritation into dreaming, and TD as a symbolic manifestation of psychological distress. Dream themes, dental irritation, psychological distress, and sleep quality were assessed among 210 undergraduates. TD were related to dental irritation (specifically, tension sensations in the teeth, gums, or jaws upon awakening), whereas other dream types were not. Conversely, TD were unrelated to psychological distress, whereas other dream types were (specifically, dreams of being smothered and dreams of falling). This disparity in the correlates of TD existed despite a small but significant relationship between psychological distress and dental irritation. Albeit preliminary, the present findings support the dental irritation hypothesis and do not support the symbolic hypothesis regarding the origins of TD. Research on TD portrays one path through which the mind may distort somatosensory stimuli and incorporate them into dreams as a vivid and emotionally-salient image; these preliminary findings highlight the potential of studying TD in order to broaden our understanding of the cognitive mechanisms governing dream production.
Keywords: Typical dreams, Sleep Bruxism, Teeth grinding, Continuity Hypothesis, Psychopathology
Abstract: Teeth dreams (TD), i.e., dreams of teeth falling out or rotting, are one of the most common and universal typical dream themes, yet their source remains unknown and they have rarely been studied empirically. They are especially enigmatic as they do not readily fall under the rubric of the “continuity hypothesis”, i.e., dreams of current and salient waking-life experiences. The aim of the present study was to explore two possible hypotheses for the origin of TD; specifically, TD as incorporation of dental irritation into dreaming, and TD as a symbolic manifestation of psychological distress. Dream themes, dental irritation, psychological distress, and sleep quality were assessed among 210 undergraduates. TD were related to dental irritation (specifically, tension sensations in the teeth, gums, or jaws upon awakening), whereas other dream types were not. Conversely, TD were unrelated to psychological distress, whereas other dream types were (specifically, dreams of being smothered and dreams of falling). This disparity in the correlates of TD existed despite a small but significant relationship between psychological distress and dental irritation. Albeit preliminary, the present findings support the dental irritation hypothesis and do not support the symbolic hypothesis regarding the origins of TD. Research on TD portrays one path through which the mind may distort somatosensory stimuli and incorporate them into dreams as a vivid and emotionally-salient image; these preliminary findings highlight the potential of studying TD in order to broaden our understanding of the cognitive mechanisms governing dream production.
Keywords: Typical dreams, Sleep Bruxism, Teeth grinding, Continuity Hypothesis, Psychopathology
In impression management situations (e.g., job interview or date), people communicate their effort less than audiences would prefer; thus, success alone may not be enough to make a positive impression on others; emphasizing effort as the cause for success also matters
Impression (Mis) Management When Communicating Success. Janina Steinmetz. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2018.1500289
Abstract: People routinely engage in impression management, for example, by highlighting successes. It is not yet known how people attribute their success (to talent vs. effort) to give a positive impression. Three experiments explore this question and test whether people’s attributions of success receive favor from their audience. The findings show that, in impression management situations (e.g., job interview or date), people communicate their effort less than audiences would prefer. Thus, success alone may not be enough to make a positive impression on others; emphasizing effort as the cause for success also matters.
Abstract: People routinely engage in impression management, for example, by highlighting successes. It is not yet known how people attribute their success (to talent vs. effort) to give a positive impression. Three experiments explore this question and test whether people’s attributions of success receive favor from their audience. The findings show that, in impression management situations (e.g., job interview or date), people communicate their effort less than audiences would prefer. Thus, success alone may not be enough to make a positive impression on others; emphasizing effort as the cause for success also matters.
One reason why people avoid using social media to express their opinions is to avert social sanctions as proposed by the spiral of silence theory; rejection sensitive individuals are less likely to share political information in social media
A social safety net? Rejection sensitivity and political opinion sharing among young people in social media. Emma A Bäck et al. New Media & Society, https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818795487
Abstract: One reason why people avoid using social media to express their opinions is to avert social sanctions as proposed by the spiral of silence theory. We here elaborate on individual-level sensitivity to social rejection in relation to voicing political opinions on social media sites. Given the uncertainty about sharing political views in social media, and the fact that social acceptance, or rejection, can be easily communicated through, for instance, likes, or a lack of likes, we argue that rejection sensitive individuals are less likely to share political information in social media. Combining an analysis of unique survey data on psychological characteristics and online political activity with focus group interviews with Swedish youth supports our argument, showing that rejection sensitive individuals are less inclined to engage politically in social media. The results extend on previous research by establishing the role of rejection sensitivity in political engagement in social media.
Keywords: Opinion sharing, rejection sensitivity, social media, spiral of silence
Abstract: One reason why people avoid using social media to express their opinions is to avert social sanctions as proposed by the spiral of silence theory. We here elaborate on individual-level sensitivity to social rejection in relation to voicing political opinions on social media sites. Given the uncertainty about sharing political views in social media, and the fact that social acceptance, or rejection, can be easily communicated through, for instance, likes, or a lack of likes, we argue that rejection sensitive individuals are less likely to share political information in social media. Combining an analysis of unique survey data on psychological characteristics and online political activity with focus group interviews with Swedish youth supports our argument, showing that rejection sensitive individuals are less inclined to engage politically in social media. The results extend on previous research by establishing the role of rejection sensitivity in political engagement in social media.
Keywords: Opinion sharing, rejection sensitivity, social media, spiral of silence
She Looks like She’d Be an Animal in Bed: Dehumanization of Drinking Women in Social Contexts
She Looks like She’d Be an Animal in Bed: Dehumanization of Drinking Women in Social Contexts. Abigail R. Riemer et al. Sex Roles, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-018-0958-9
Abstract: The purpose of the present research was to examine the perceptions of women who drink in social contexts through the lens of dehumanization (Haslam 2006). Across three experiments, we manipulated the presence of alcohol by depicting a woman at a bar with a bottle of beer or a bottle of water and measured dehumanization. As hypothesized, women were dehumanized more in the alcohol condition than in the water condition by men (Experiments 1–3) and women (Experiments 2 and 3). Notably, the presence of alcohol compared to water had no impact on dehumanization of men (Experiment 2). Also, as hypothesized, perceived intoxication emerged as a significant mediator of the link between alcohol condition and dehumanization in Experiments 1 and 2, and alcohol quantity predicted greater dehumanization in Experiment 3. Extending the present work to prior work in this area, Experiment 3 also examined the links among alcohol, perceived sexual availability, and dehumanization, revealing that perceived sexual availability mediated the link between alcohol and dehumanization. Implications for theories of dehumanization, alcohol, and social perception as well as practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Abstract: The purpose of the present research was to examine the perceptions of women who drink in social contexts through the lens of dehumanization (Haslam 2006). Across three experiments, we manipulated the presence of alcohol by depicting a woman at a bar with a bottle of beer or a bottle of water and measured dehumanization. As hypothesized, women were dehumanized more in the alcohol condition than in the water condition by men (Experiments 1–3) and women (Experiments 2 and 3). Notably, the presence of alcohol compared to water had no impact on dehumanization of men (Experiment 2). Also, as hypothesized, perceived intoxication emerged as a significant mediator of the link between alcohol condition and dehumanization in Experiments 1 and 2, and alcohol quantity predicted greater dehumanization in Experiment 3. Extending the present work to prior work in this area, Experiment 3 also examined the links among alcohol, perceived sexual availability, and dehumanization, revealing that perceived sexual availability mediated the link between alcohol and dehumanization. Implications for theories of dehumanization, alcohol, and social perception as well as practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Women's and men's orgasmic latencies during partnered sex are substantially longer than masturbation's; women reporting the greatest difficulty reaching orgasm have the longest latencies & are likely to find masturbation more satisfying
Orgasmic Latency and Related Parameters in Women During Partnered and Masturbatory Sex. David L. Rowland et al. J Sex Med 2018;XX:XXX–XXX. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2018.08.003
Abstract
Introduction: Orgasmic latency (OL) during partnered sex (POL) and OL during masturbatory sex (MOL) in women with and without orgasmic difficulty have received minimal attention.
Aim: To ascertain POL and MOL both overall and more specifically in women with and without difficulty reaching orgasm and to explore interrelationships between masturbatory and partnered latencies and sexual satisfaction.
Methods: Participants for this study were 2,304 women drawn from community–based samples in the United States and Hungary who completed an investigator–derived questionnaire regarding their sexual history and response, including items related to frequency of masturbation and partnered sex, sexual desire, sexual arousal, orgasmic response, OL, distress, partner distress, and sexual satisfaction.
Main Outcome Measure: Self-reported OL and related orgasmic parameters during masturbation and partnered sex in women with and without difficulty reaching orgasm were assessed.
Results: POL were longer than those during MOL. Women experiencing difficulty reaching orgasm showed even longer latencies during partnered sex but comparable latencies during masturbation. Covariates related to POL included age, overall relationship quality, masturbation frequency, MOL, and level of distress about not reaching orgasm.
Clinical Implications: POL in women are substantially longer than men’s, suggesting the potential need for an increased repertoire of stimulatory behaviors to increase the woman’s arousal.
Strength and Limitations: The study was well powered and drew from a multi-national population. However, specific types of sexual stimulation during partnered and masturbatory sex were not included in this analysis.
Conclusion: MOL for women and POL differ significantly, with latencies during partnered sex being substantially longer than masturbation, although women reporting the greatest difficulty reaching orgasm have the longest latencies and are likely to find masturbation more satisfying than women who do not.
Abstract
Introduction: Orgasmic latency (OL) during partnered sex (POL) and OL during masturbatory sex (MOL) in women with and without orgasmic difficulty have received minimal attention.
Aim: To ascertain POL and MOL both overall and more specifically in women with and without difficulty reaching orgasm and to explore interrelationships between masturbatory and partnered latencies and sexual satisfaction.
Methods: Participants for this study were 2,304 women drawn from community–based samples in the United States and Hungary who completed an investigator–derived questionnaire regarding their sexual history and response, including items related to frequency of masturbation and partnered sex, sexual desire, sexual arousal, orgasmic response, OL, distress, partner distress, and sexual satisfaction.
Main Outcome Measure: Self-reported OL and related orgasmic parameters during masturbation and partnered sex in women with and without difficulty reaching orgasm were assessed.
Results: POL were longer than those during MOL. Women experiencing difficulty reaching orgasm showed even longer latencies during partnered sex but comparable latencies during masturbation. Covariates related to POL included age, overall relationship quality, masturbation frequency, MOL, and level of distress about not reaching orgasm.
Clinical Implications: POL in women are substantially longer than men’s, suggesting the potential need for an increased repertoire of stimulatory behaviors to increase the woman’s arousal.
Strength and Limitations: The study was well powered and drew from a multi-national population. However, specific types of sexual stimulation during partnered and masturbatory sex were not included in this analysis.
Conclusion: MOL for women and POL differ significantly, with latencies during partnered sex being substantially longer than masturbation, although women reporting the greatest difficulty reaching orgasm have the longest latencies and are likely to find masturbation more satisfying than women who do not.
Personality and Political Preferences: The 2016 U.S. Presidential Elections
Personality and Political Preferences: The 2016 U.S. Presidential Elections. Jo Ann A. Abe. Journal of Research in Personality, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.09.001
Highlights
• Self-ratings of personality showed weak associations with political preferences.
• Appraisal of candidates’ personality robustly associated with political preferences.
• Appraisals stronger predictor than demographics, political party, racial attitudes.
• Appraisals related to linguistic markers of liberal, conservative, populist values.
Abstract: This study examined whether personality variables would account for political preferences during the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election using a demographically diverse sample of participants (N = 897). Study A revealed participants’ ratings of their own personality and emotions were weakly associated with political preferences, but their ratings of candidates’ personality showed robust associations, and were far more predictive of voting intention than all of the demographic variables, political affiliation, and racial attitudes combined. In Study B, linguistic analysis of narratives revealed words reflective of liberal values were correlated with positive evaluations of Clinton’s personality, whereas words reflective of conservative values and “populist” sentiment were correlated with positive evaluations of Trump’s personality, suggesting appraisals of candidates may be associated with values.
Highlights
• Self-ratings of personality showed weak associations with political preferences.
• Appraisal of candidates’ personality robustly associated with political preferences.
• Appraisals stronger predictor than demographics, political party, racial attitudes.
• Appraisals related to linguistic markers of liberal, conservative, populist values.
Abstract: This study examined whether personality variables would account for political preferences during the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election using a demographically diverse sample of participants (N = 897). Study A revealed participants’ ratings of their own personality and emotions were weakly associated with political preferences, but their ratings of candidates’ personality showed robust associations, and were far more predictive of voting intention than all of the demographic variables, political affiliation, and racial attitudes combined. In Study B, linguistic analysis of narratives revealed words reflective of liberal values were correlated with positive evaluations of Clinton’s personality, whereas words reflective of conservative values and “populist” sentiment were correlated with positive evaluations of Trump’s personality, suggesting appraisals of candidates may be associated with values.
Do Individuals Successfully Cover up Their Lies? On average, subjects are perceived as more truthful if they deceive, also happens for those with a genuine dishonest appearance
Do Individuals Successfully Cover up Their Lies? Evidence from a Compliance Experiment. Nadja Dwenger, Tim Lohse. Journal of Economic Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2018.08.007
Highlights
• We investigate how well subjects in a face-to-face situation can delude others.
• Videotaped honest and dishonest income reports of the same subject are assessed.
• On average, subjects are perceived as more truthful if they deceive.
• In particular, this holds true for those with a genuine dishonest appearance.
• However, a subject appears less truthful if she was caught lying right before.
Abstract: We study how well individuals in a face-to-face situation can delude others. We exploit data from a laboratory experiment in which participants were asked to assess video-taped statements as being rather truthful or untruthful. The statements are face-to-face tax declarations. The video clips feature each subject twice making the same declaration: One time the subject is reporting honestly, and the other time willingly dishonestly. This allows us to investigate within-subject differences in perceived truthfulness. Our study provides several novel insights. We find that individuals can cover up their lies successfully. On average, a subject is perceived as more truthful if she deceives than if she reports honestly. In particular, individuals with a genuine dishonest appearance manage to increase their perceived truthfulness by up to 14 percent when lying. Moreover, our results show that a subject appears less truthful if she had previously been caught lying. Being detected as a liar previously appears to impair self-confidence and to thereby lower an individual’s ability to deceive.
Highlights
• We investigate how well subjects in a face-to-face situation can delude others.
• Videotaped honest and dishonest income reports of the same subject are assessed.
• On average, subjects are perceived as more truthful if they deceive.
• In particular, this holds true for those with a genuine dishonest appearance.
• However, a subject appears less truthful if she was caught lying right before.
Abstract: We study how well individuals in a face-to-face situation can delude others. We exploit data from a laboratory experiment in which participants were asked to assess video-taped statements as being rather truthful or untruthful. The statements are face-to-face tax declarations. The video clips feature each subject twice making the same declaration: One time the subject is reporting honestly, and the other time willingly dishonestly. This allows us to investigate within-subject differences in perceived truthfulness. Our study provides several novel insights. We find that individuals can cover up their lies successfully. On average, a subject is perceived as more truthful if she deceives than if she reports honestly. In particular, individuals with a genuine dishonest appearance manage to increase their perceived truthfulness by up to 14 percent when lying. Moreover, our results show that a subject appears less truthful if she had previously been caught lying. Being detected as a liar previously appears to impair self-confidence and to thereby lower an individual’s ability to deceive.
Conversations with new people is rewarding part of social life, but can also be intimidating & anxiety provoking; following interactions, people systematically underestimated how much their conversation partners liked them & enjoyed their company
The Liking Gap in Conversations: Do People Like Us More Than We Think? Erica J. Boothby et al. Psychological Science, https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618783714
Abstract: Having conversations with new people is an important and rewarding part of social life. Yet conversations can also be intimidating and anxiety provoking, and this makes people wonder and worry about what their conversation partners really think of them. Are people accurate in their estimates? We found that following interactions, people systematically underestimated how much their conversation partners liked them and enjoyed their company, an illusion we call the liking gap. We observed the liking gap as strangers got acquainted in the laboratory, as first-year college students got to know their dorm mates, and as formerly unacquainted members of the general public got to know each other during a personal development workshop. The liking gap persisted in conversations of varying lengths and even lasted for several months, as college dorm mates developed new relationships. Our studies suggest that after people have conversations, they are liked more than they know.
Keywords: interpersonal interaction, social perception, social interaction, meta-perception, conversation, open data
Abstract: Having conversations with new people is an important and rewarding part of social life. Yet conversations can also be intimidating and anxiety provoking, and this makes people wonder and worry about what their conversation partners really think of them. Are people accurate in their estimates? We found that following interactions, people systematically underestimated how much their conversation partners liked them and enjoyed their company, an illusion we call the liking gap. We observed the liking gap as strangers got acquainted in the laboratory, as first-year college students got to know their dorm mates, and as formerly unacquainted members of the general public got to know each other during a personal development workshop. The liking gap persisted in conversations of varying lengths and even lasted for several months, as college dorm mates developed new relationships. Our studies suggest that after people have conversations, they are liked more than they know.
Keywords: interpersonal interaction, social perception, social interaction, meta-perception, conversation, open data
Wednesday, September 5, 2018
A Mixed-Method Study of Same-Sex Kissing Among College-Attending Heterosexual Men in the U.S.
A Mixed-Method Study of Same-Sex Kissing Among College-Attending Heterosexual Men in the U.S. Eric Anderson, Matthew Ripley, Mark McCormack. Sexuality & Culture, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12119-018-9560-0
Abstract: This is the first research to assess the prevalence of same-sex kissing among college-attending, heterosexual men in the United States. We utilized a mixed-method study of 442 quantitative surveys and 75 in-depth interviews with participants from 11 universities in order to understand the frequency, context and meanings of same-sex kissing. We found that the prevalence of kissing on the cheek among these participants was 40%, and kissing on the lips 10%. Both types of kisses were predicted by positive attitudes toward gay men and both types of kissing were generally described as non-sexual expressions of affection. We situate these empirical results within contemporary theoretical debates about masculinities and contend that the meanings associated with heterosexual masculinity are undergoing a profound shift in U.S. culture. This trend of same-sex kissing needs further attention to fully understand these shifts and the emerging homosocial and tactile experiences of young American men.
Abstract: This is the first research to assess the prevalence of same-sex kissing among college-attending, heterosexual men in the United States. We utilized a mixed-method study of 442 quantitative surveys and 75 in-depth interviews with participants from 11 universities in order to understand the frequency, context and meanings of same-sex kissing. We found that the prevalence of kissing on the cheek among these participants was 40%, and kissing on the lips 10%. Both types of kisses were predicted by positive attitudes toward gay men and both types of kissing were generally described as non-sexual expressions of affection. We situate these empirical results within contemporary theoretical debates about masculinities and contend that the meanings associated with heterosexual masculinity are undergoing a profound shift in U.S. culture. This trend of same-sex kissing needs further attention to fully understand these shifts and the emerging homosocial and tactile experiences of young American men.
The more incentives people have to behave self-servingly, the more they perceive the victims of that behavior as dissimilar, i.e., the more they purposely & proactively distance themselves psychologically
Motivated dissimilarity construal and self-serving behavior: How we distance ourselves from those we harm. Laura J. Noval, Andrew Molinsky, Günter K. Stahl. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Volume 148, September 2018, Pages 145-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.08.003
Highlights
• We introduce an incentivized form of psychological distance called “Motivated Dissimilarity Construal” (MDC).
• The more incentives people have to behave self-servingly, the more they perceive the victims of that behavior as dissimilar.
• Anticipated discomfort about self-serving behavior increases MDC.
• MDC is possible when people consider an acquaintance but less likely when they consider a friend.
• MDC increases self-serving behavior by reducing discomfort about that behavior.
Abstract: It is well established that people are more likely to act in a self-serving manner towards those dissimilar to themselves. Less well understood is how people actively shape perceptions of dissimilarity towards victims in order to minimize their own discomfort. In this paper, we introduce the concept of Motivated Dissimilarity Construal (MDC) – the act of purposely and proactively distancing oneself psychologically from the victim of one’s own self-serving behavior. In doing so, we challenge the notion that potential victims of self-serving acts are perceived objectively and independently of a decision maker’s motivation, as traditional rationalist models of decision making might suggest. Across three experiments, we demonstrate how, why and when MDC is likely to occur, and discuss implications of these findings for theory and research on behavioral ethics and interpersonal similarity.
Highlights
• We introduce an incentivized form of psychological distance called “Motivated Dissimilarity Construal” (MDC).
• The more incentives people have to behave self-servingly, the more they perceive the victims of that behavior as dissimilar.
• Anticipated discomfort about self-serving behavior increases MDC.
• MDC is possible when people consider an acquaintance but less likely when they consider a friend.
• MDC increases self-serving behavior by reducing discomfort about that behavior.
Abstract: It is well established that people are more likely to act in a self-serving manner towards those dissimilar to themselves. Less well understood is how people actively shape perceptions of dissimilarity towards victims in order to minimize their own discomfort. In this paper, we introduce the concept of Motivated Dissimilarity Construal (MDC) – the act of purposely and proactively distancing oneself psychologically from the victim of one’s own self-serving behavior. In doing so, we challenge the notion that potential victims of self-serving acts are perceived objectively and independently of a decision maker’s motivation, as traditional rationalist models of decision making might suggest. Across three experiments, we demonstrate how, why and when MDC is likely to occur, and discuss implications of these findings for theory and research on behavioral ethics and interpersonal similarity.
In addition to previously reported risk factors, patient’s subjective impressions of penile size negatively impacts sexual life in about 10% of men considered healthy, while objective penile length does not play significant role in erectile function
Does underestimated penile size impact erectile function in healthy men? Brunno CF Sanches et al. International Journal of Impotence Research, volume 30, pages158–162 (2018). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41443-018-0039-1
Abstract: The aim of this study is to assess the impact of objective (stretched) and subjective penile size in the erectile function in a urological check-up program on a cross-sectional study including 689 men aged 35–70 years. IIEF-5 questionnaire, physical examination (penile length, prostate volume, blood pressure, body mass index-BMI), metabolic syndrome (MS), comorbidities, habits (sexual intercourse frequency, physical activity, alcohol, and tobacco use), level of education, serum glucose, total testosterone, estradiol, PSA, lipid profile, and self-perceptions (ejaculation time and subjective penile size) were examined in multivariate models using logistic and linear regressions. Penile objective mean length was 13.08 cm ± 2.32 and 67 (9.72%) patients referred small penis self-perception. Seventy-six (11.03%) participants had severe erectile dysfunction (ED), 75 (10.88%) had mild to moderate and moderate ED, 112 (16.25%) had mild ED and 426 (61.83%) had no ED. Risk factors for ED that held statistical significance were self-perceived small penis (OR = 2.23, 95% CI 1.35–3.69, p = .0017), sexual intercourse frequency (per week) (OR = 0.45, 95% CI 0.38–0.52, p < .0001), satisfactory ejaculation time (no vs. yes, OR = 2.06, 95% CI 1.46–2.92, p < .0001), comorbidity (yes vs. no, OR = 2.01, 95% CI 1.46–2.76, p < .0001), age >65 years (OR = 2.93, 95% CI 1.53–5.61, p < .0001), tobacco use (yes vs. no, OR = 1.41, 95% CI 1.02–1.96, p < .0375), regular physical activity (no vs. yes, OR = 1.59, 95% CI 1.13–2.23, p < .0083), serum total testosterone < 200 ng/dl (OR = 3.48, 95% CI 1.69–7.16, p = 0.0009), serum glucose > 100 mg/dl (OR = 1.69, 95% CI 1.18–2.43, p = 0.0044) and systolic blood pressure > 130 mmHg (OR = 1.60, 95% CI 1.16–2.19, p = 0.0037). Results suggest that in addition to previously reported risk factors, patient’s subjective impressions of penile size negatively impacts sexual life in about 10% of men considered healthy, while objective penile length does not play significant role in erectile function.
Abstract: The aim of this study is to assess the impact of objective (stretched) and subjective penile size in the erectile function in a urological check-up program on a cross-sectional study including 689 men aged 35–70 years. IIEF-5 questionnaire, physical examination (penile length, prostate volume, blood pressure, body mass index-BMI), metabolic syndrome (MS), comorbidities, habits (sexual intercourse frequency, physical activity, alcohol, and tobacco use), level of education, serum glucose, total testosterone, estradiol, PSA, lipid profile, and self-perceptions (ejaculation time and subjective penile size) were examined in multivariate models using logistic and linear regressions. Penile objective mean length was 13.08 cm ± 2.32 and 67 (9.72%) patients referred small penis self-perception. Seventy-six (11.03%) participants had severe erectile dysfunction (ED), 75 (10.88%) had mild to moderate and moderate ED, 112 (16.25%) had mild ED and 426 (61.83%) had no ED. Risk factors for ED that held statistical significance were self-perceived small penis (OR = 2.23, 95% CI 1.35–3.69, p = .0017), sexual intercourse frequency (per week) (OR = 0.45, 95% CI 0.38–0.52, p < .0001), satisfactory ejaculation time (no vs. yes, OR = 2.06, 95% CI 1.46–2.92, p < .0001), comorbidity (yes vs. no, OR = 2.01, 95% CI 1.46–2.76, p < .0001), age >65 years (OR = 2.93, 95% CI 1.53–5.61, p < .0001), tobacco use (yes vs. no, OR = 1.41, 95% CI 1.02–1.96, p < .0375), regular physical activity (no vs. yes, OR = 1.59, 95% CI 1.13–2.23, p < .0083), serum total testosterone < 200 ng/dl (OR = 3.48, 95% CI 1.69–7.16, p = 0.0009), serum glucose > 100 mg/dl (OR = 1.69, 95% CI 1.18–2.43, p = 0.0044) and systolic blood pressure > 130 mmHg (OR = 1.60, 95% CI 1.16–2.19, p = 0.0037). Results suggest that in addition to previously reported risk factors, patient’s subjective impressions of penile size negatively impacts sexual life in about 10% of men considered healthy, while objective penile length does not play significant role in erectile function.
Tuesday, September 4, 2018
Manipulating the source of the property and income effects, experimenters find that without social enforcement, respect for property is low; taking aversion grows when the property is legitimized by labor
Thou shalt not steal: Taking aversion with legal property claims. Marco Faillo, Matteo Rizzolli, Stephan Tontrup. Journal of Economic Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2018.08.009
Highlights
• We test taking aversion using a dictator game with a symmetric action space.
• We implement a double-blind anonymity protocol and establish clear property rights.
• We manipulate the source of the property and income effects.
• Without social enforcement, respect for property is low.
• Taking aversion grows when the property is legitimized by labor.
Abstract: Do people have an innate respect for property? In the literature, there is controversy about whether human subjects are taking averse. We implemented a dictator game with a symmetric action space to address potential misconceptions and framing and demand effects that may be responsible for the contradictory findings. Misconceptions can occur as a result of unclear property rights, while framing and demand effects can occur if anonymity is not preserved. Our paper is the first to implement both a strict double-blind anonymity protocol and clear property rights. We established clear property claims by asking subjects in our legal treatment to bring their own property to the experiment. In the effort treatment, the experimenter transferred the property publicly to subjects after they completed a real effort task. Our data suggest that without social enforcement, respect for property is low. Yet, the taking rate significantly differs from the theoretically predicted maximum. Consistent with the Lockean theory of property, respect for property grows when the entitlement is legitimized by the labor the owner had to invest to acquire it.
Highlights
• We test taking aversion using a dictator game with a symmetric action space.
• We implement a double-blind anonymity protocol and establish clear property rights.
• We manipulate the source of the property and income effects.
• Without social enforcement, respect for property is low.
• Taking aversion grows when the property is legitimized by labor.
Abstract: Do people have an innate respect for property? In the literature, there is controversy about whether human subjects are taking averse. We implemented a dictator game with a symmetric action space to address potential misconceptions and framing and demand effects that may be responsible for the contradictory findings. Misconceptions can occur as a result of unclear property rights, while framing and demand effects can occur if anonymity is not preserved. Our paper is the first to implement both a strict double-blind anonymity protocol and clear property rights. We established clear property claims by asking subjects in our legal treatment to bring their own property to the experiment. In the effort treatment, the experimenter transferred the property publicly to subjects after they completed a real effort task. Our data suggest that without social enforcement, respect for property is low. Yet, the taking rate significantly differs from the theoretically predicted maximum. Consistent with the Lockean theory of property, respect for property grows when the entitlement is legitimized by the labor the owner had to invest to acquire it.
The perception of political disagreement is more prevalent on social media than it is in face-to-face communication, and it may be associated with negative affect toward others
Social Affect and Political Disagreement on Social Media. Matthew Barnidge. Social Media + Society, https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118797721
Abstract: The perception of political disagreement is more prevalent on social media than it is in face-to-face communication, and it may be associated with negative affect toward others. This research investigates the relationship between interpersonal evaluations (i.e., perceived similarity, liking, and closeness) and perceived political disagreement in social media versus face-to-face settings. Relying on a representative survey of adult internet users in the United States (N = 489), the study first examines the differences between social media and face-to-face settings in terms of interpersonal evaluations and relates them to parallel differences in perceived disagreement. Results are discussed in light of important, ongoing scholarly conversations about political disagreement, tolerance toward the other side in politics, and the “affective turn” in public communication about politics.
Keywords: social affect, interpersonal evaluations, political disagreement, social media, affective publics, political communication
Abstract: The perception of political disagreement is more prevalent on social media than it is in face-to-face communication, and it may be associated with negative affect toward others. This research investigates the relationship between interpersonal evaluations (i.e., perceived similarity, liking, and closeness) and perceived political disagreement in social media versus face-to-face settings. Relying on a representative survey of adult internet users in the United States (N = 489), the study first examines the differences between social media and face-to-face settings in terms of interpersonal evaluations and relates them to parallel differences in perceived disagreement. Results are discussed in light of important, ongoing scholarly conversations about political disagreement, tolerance toward the other side in politics, and the “affective turn” in public communication about politics.
Keywords: social affect, interpersonal evaluations, political disagreement, social media, affective publics, political communication
Most BDSM experiences are leisure; “most of the time or nearly always” BDSM was associated with a sense of personal freedom, pleasure or enjoyment, use of personal skills, relaxation or decreased stress, self-expression or exploration, & positive emotion
Is Bondage and Discipline, Dominance and Submission, and Sadomasochism Recreational Leisure? A Descriptive Exploratory Investigation. DJ. Williams, Emily E. Prior, Thea Alvarado, Jeremy N. Thomas, M. Candace Christensen. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, July 2016Volume 13, Issue 7, Pages 1091–1094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.05.001 |
Abstract
Introduction: Recent studies have suggested that, in contrast to traditional psychopathologic explanations, bondage and discipline, dominance and submission, and sadomasochism (BDSM) could be understood as recreational leisure. However, the theoretical framing of BDSM as potential leisure has not been empirically explored.
Aim: To conduct an initial empirical exploration to determine whether BDSM experience fits established characteristics of recreational leisure.
Methods: A convenience sample of BDSM participants (N = 935) completed an online survey (9 demographic questions and 17 leisure questions) that assessed BDSM experience according to important attributes of leisure. Responses also were assessed and statistically compared as being primarily casual or serious leisure according to general BDSM identities (ie, dominants vs submissives vs switches).
Main Outcome Measures: BDSM experiences were assessed as a form of potential leisure.
Results: Most BDSM experiences met leisure criteria. Participants reported that “most of the time or nearly always” BDSM was associated with a sense of personal freedom (89.7% of participants), pleasure or enjoyment (98.5%), sense of adventure (90.7%), use of personal skills (90.8%), relaxation or decreased stress (91.4%), self-expression or exploration (90.6%), and positive emotions (96.6%). BDSM seemed to function as primarily serious, rather than casual, leisure, but important statistical differences were observed based on specific BDSM identities.
Conclusion: A leisure science perspective could be valuable to researchers and clinicians in reinterpreting the wide range of diverse BDSM motivations and practices.
Key Words: Bondage and Discipline, Dominance and Submission, and Sadomasochism, Sadomasochism, Sexuality, Leisure, Recreation, Identity
Abstract
Introduction: Recent studies have suggested that, in contrast to traditional psychopathologic explanations, bondage and discipline, dominance and submission, and sadomasochism (BDSM) could be understood as recreational leisure. However, the theoretical framing of BDSM as potential leisure has not been empirically explored.
Aim: To conduct an initial empirical exploration to determine whether BDSM experience fits established characteristics of recreational leisure.
Methods: A convenience sample of BDSM participants (N = 935) completed an online survey (9 demographic questions and 17 leisure questions) that assessed BDSM experience according to important attributes of leisure. Responses also were assessed and statistically compared as being primarily casual or serious leisure according to general BDSM identities (ie, dominants vs submissives vs switches).
Main Outcome Measures: BDSM experiences were assessed as a form of potential leisure.
Results: Most BDSM experiences met leisure criteria. Participants reported that “most of the time or nearly always” BDSM was associated with a sense of personal freedom (89.7% of participants), pleasure or enjoyment (98.5%), sense of adventure (90.7%), use of personal skills (90.8%), relaxation or decreased stress (91.4%), self-expression or exploration (90.6%), and positive emotions (96.6%). BDSM seemed to function as primarily serious, rather than casual, leisure, but important statistical differences were observed based on specific BDSM identities.
Conclusion: A leisure science perspective could be valuable to researchers and clinicians in reinterpreting the wide range of diverse BDSM motivations and practices.
Key Words: Bondage and Discipline, Dominance and Submission, and Sadomasochism, Sadomasochism, Sexuality, Leisure, Recreation, Identity
The tendency to respond to moral threat with physical cleansing is known as the Macbeth Effect; there is little evidence for an overall effect; however, there may be a Macbeth Effect under certain conditions
The Relationship Between Immorality and Cleansing. A Meta-Analysis of the Macbeth Effect. Jedidiah Siev, Shelby E. Zuckerman, and Joseph J. Siev. Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000349
Abstract. In a widely publicized set of studies, participants who were primed to consider unethical events preferred cleansing products more than did those primed with ethical events (Zhong & Liljenquist, 2006). This tendency to respond to moral threat with physical cleansing is known as the Macbeth Effect. Several subsequent efforts, however, did not replicate this relationship. The present manuscript reports the results of a meta-analysis of 15 studies testing this relationship. The weighted mean effect size was small across all studies (g = 0.17, 95% CI [0.04, 0.31]), and nonsignificant across studies conducted in independent laboratories (g = 0.07, 95% CI [−0.04, 0.19]). We conclude that there is little evidence for an overall Macbeth Effect; however, there may be a Macbeth Effect under certain conditions.
Keywords: Macbeth Effect, morality, cleansing, metaphor, embodiment
Abstract. In a widely publicized set of studies, participants who were primed to consider unethical events preferred cleansing products more than did those primed with ethical events (Zhong & Liljenquist, 2006). This tendency to respond to moral threat with physical cleansing is known as the Macbeth Effect. Several subsequent efforts, however, did not replicate this relationship. The present manuscript reports the results of a meta-analysis of 15 studies testing this relationship. The weighted mean effect size was small across all studies (g = 0.17, 95% CI [0.04, 0.31]), and nonsignificant across studies conducted in independent laboratories (g = 0.07, 95% CI [−0.04, 0.19]). We conclude that there is little evidence for an overall Macbeth Effect; however, there may be a Macbeth Effect under certain conditions.
Keywords: Macbeth Effect, morality, cleansing, metaphor, embodiment
About half of the participants who were single were involuntary so; & mating performance—how well people do in starting and keeping an intimate relationship—was a significant predictor of involuntary singlehood
Are People Single by Choice? Involuntary Singlehood in an Evolutionary Perspective. Menelaos Apostolou, Irene Papadopoulou, Polyxeni Georgiadou. Evolutionary Psychological Science, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-018-0169-1
Abstract: A substantial proportion of people living in Western societies do not have an intimate partner. The current research attempts to estimate the occurrence of people who are involuntary single—they want to be in an intimate relationship but they find it difficult to do so—in the Greek cultural context. Evidence from two independent studies (N = 1682) indicated that about half of the participants who were single, they were involuntary so. It was also found that, mating performance—how well people do in starting and keeping an intimate relationship—was a significant predictor of involuntary singlehood, with low scorers facing a higher probability to be involuntary single than high scorers.
Keywords: Involuntary singlehood Singlehood Mating Mating performance Mate choice
Abstract: A substantial proportion of people living in Western societies do not have an intimate partner. The current research attempts to estimate the occurrence of people who are involuntary single—they want to be in an intimate relationship but they find it difficult to do so—in the Greek cultural context. Evidence from two independent studies (N = 1682) indicated that about half of the participants who were single, they were involuntary so. It was also found that, mating performance—how well people do in starting and keeping an intimate relationship—was a significant predictor of involuntary singlehood, with low scorers facing a higher probability to be involuntary single than high scorers.
Keywords: Involuntary singlehood Singlehood Mating Mating performance Mate choice
Participants could significantly predict/estimate their own Neuroticism, Extraversion and Conscientiousness scores, as well as their General, Fluid and Crystalised intelligence, but not Agreeableness
Estimating One’s Own and Other’s Psychological Test Scores. Adrian Furnham. Psychology, Vol.9 No.8, August 2018. DOI: 10.4236/psych.2018.98127
ABSTRACT: This paper examines how accurate people are at estimating their own psychometric test results, which assess personality, intelligence, approach to learning and other factors. Seven groups of students completed a battery of power (general intelligence, fluid intelligence, creativity and general knowledge) tests and preference (approaches to learning, emotional intelligence, Big Five personality) tests. Two months later (before receiving feedback on their psychometric scores) they estimated their own scores and that of a class acquaintance who they claimed to know well on these variables. Results from the different samples were reasonably consistent. They showed that participants could significantly predict/estimate their own Neuroticism, Extraversion and Conscientiousness scores, as well as their General, Fluid and Crystalised intelligence, Approaches to Learning, Creativity and Happiness. Correlations between estimated and test-derived scores for an acquaintance were around half those for self-estimates and better for personality than ability. Participants self and “other” estimates were nearly all significantly positive. The discussion considers when, if ever, self-estimated scores can be used as proxy for test scores and what self-estimated scores indicate. Limitations are considered.
KEYWORDS: Personality, Intelligence, Creativity, Learning Style, Self-Estimation, Self-Assessment
ABSTRACT: This paper examines how accurate people are at estimating their own psychometric test results, which assess personality, intelligence, approach to learning and other factors. Seven groups of students completed a battery of power (general intelligence, fluid intelligence, creativity and general knowledge) tests and preference (approaches to learning, emotional intelligence, Big Five personality) tests. Two months later (before receiving feedback on their psychometric scores) they estimated their own scores and that of a class acquaintance who they claimed to know well on these variables. Results from the different samples were reasonably consistent. They showed that participants could significantly predict/estimate their own Neuroticism, Extraversion and Conscientiousness scores, as well as their General, Fluid and Crystalised intelligence, Approaches to Learning, Creativity and Happiness. Correlations between estimated and test-derived scores for an acquaintance were around half those for self-estimates and better for personality than ability. Participants self and “other” estimates were nearly all significantly positive. The discussion considers when, if ever, self-estimated scores can be used as proxy for test scores and what self-estimated scores indicate. Limitations are considered.
KEYWORDS: Personality, Intelligence, Creativity, Learning Style, Self-Estimation, Self-Assessment
Monday, September 3, 2018
Wearing glasses can robustly boost electoral success, at least in Western cultures
You Can Leave Your Glasses on: Glasses Can Increase Electoral Success. Alexandra Fleischmann et al. In Press, Social Psychology, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326942161
Abstract: Does wearing glasses hurt or help politicians in elections? Although some research shows that glasses signal unattractiveness, glasses also increase perceptions of competence. In eight studies, participants voted for politicians wearing (photoshopped) glasses or not. Wearing glasses increased politicians’ electoral success in the U.S. (Study 1), independent of their political orientation (Studies 2a and 2b). This positive effect was especially strong when intelligence was important (Study 3), and even occurred if glasses were used strategically (Study 4). However, it did not extend to India (Study 5) due to different cultural associations with glasses (Study 6). Furthermore, while intelligence mediated the effect, warmth did not (Study 7). In summary, wearing glasses can robustly boost electoral success, at least in Western cultures.
Keywords: Glasses, voting, stereotypes, politicians, election
Abstract: Does wearing glasses hurt or help politicians in elections? Although some research shows that glasses signal unattractiveness, glasses also increase perceptions of competence. In eight studies, participants voted for politicians wearing (photoshopped) glasses or not. Wearing glasses increased politicians’ electoral success in the U.S. (Study 1), independent of their political orientation (Studies 2a and 2b). This positive effect was especially strong when intelligence was important (Study 3), and even occurred if glasses were used strategically (Study 4). However, it did not extend to India (Study 5) due to different cultural associations with glasses (Study 6). Furthermore, while intelligence mediated the effect, warmth did not (Study 7). In summary, wearing glasses can robustly boost electoral success, at least in Western cultures.
Keywords: Glasses, voting, stereotypes, politicians, election
Gender Difference in Verbal Performance: In written tests, only 39pct of boys but 61pct of girls will reach proficiency
Gender Difference in Verbal Performance: a Meta-analysis of United States State Performance Assessments. Jennifer Petersen. Educational Psychology Review, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10648-018-9450-x
Abstract: A comprehensive, statistical review of gender differences in verbal performance has not been conducted in several decades and the majority of previous work on this topic used published studies that often include small, non-representative samples. The introduction of national legislation in US public schools required schools to assess and publicly report verbal performance, thus providing verbal assessment data for millions of American students. The current study presents a meta-analysis of gender differences in US state verbal assessments. Data were collected from the departments of education in 16 states representing more than 10 million US students in grades 3 through 11. Results indicated a small gender difference favoring females for overall verbal performance (d = 0.29). However, when type of assessment was considered, the female advantages in reading (d = 0.19) and language arts (d = 0.29) were smaller than in writing performance (d = 0.45). The small gender differences in verbal performance increased in a linear pattern from grades 3 to 8 and then remained steady in high school.
Abstract: A comprehensive, statistical review of gender differences in verbal performance has not been conducted in several decades and the majority of previous work on this topic used published studies that often include small, non-representative samples. The introduction of national legislation in US public schools required schools to assess and publicly report verbal performance, thus providing verbal assessment data for millions of American students. The current study presents a meta-analysis of gender differences in US state verbal assessments. Data were collected from the departments of education in 16 states representing more than 10 million US students in grades 3 through 11. Results indicated a small gender difference favoring females for overall verbal performance (d = 0.29). However, when type of assessment was considered, the female advantages in reading (d = 0.19) and language arts (d = 0.29) were smaller than in writing performance (d = 0.45). The small gender differences in verbal performance increased in a linear pattern from grades 3 to 8 and then remained steady in high school.
Monkeys: Collective intentions are inferable when they go on patrol, mob predators, go hunting, & when gang-attack disliked members of the same community (with significant pre-adaptive implications for the evolution of moralistic social control)
Collective intentionality: A basic and early component of moral evolution. Christopher Boehm. Philosophical Psychology. Volume 31, 2018 - Issue 5, Pages 680-702. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515089.2018.1486607
ABSTRACT: Michael Tomasello’s account of moral evolution includes both a synthesis of extensive experimental work done on humans and chimpanzees on their potential for perspective-taking and helpful, altruistic generosity and a major emphasis on “collective intentionality” as an important component of morality in humans. Both will be very useful to the evolutionary study of this subject. However, his disavowal of collective intentions on the parts of chimpanzees would appear to be empirically incorrect, owing to reliance on experimental captive research focused only on dyadic interactions. Here, evidence to the contrary is provided from studies of wild chimpanzees as they naturally cooperate in sizable groups. Collective intentions are inferable when they go on patrol, when they mob predators, when they go hunting, and when large coalitions gang-attack disliked members of the same community. This last behavior has particularly significant pre-adaptive implications for the evolution of moralistic social control, and it suggests that moral evolution has deep roots, going back to the Last Common Ancestor of humans, bonobos, and chimpanzees.
KEYWORDS: Chimpanzee attacks, coalitions, collective intentions, cooperation, moral evolution, problem solving, punishment, social sanctions, social selection
ABSTRACT: Michael Tomasello’s account of moral evolution includes both a synthesis of extensive experimental work done on humans and chimpanzees on their potential for perspective-taking and helpful, altruistic generosity and a major emphasis on “collective intentionality” as an important component of morality in humans. Both will be very useful to the evolutionary study of this subject. However, his disavowal of collective intentions on the parts of chimpanzees would appear to be empirically incorrect, owing to reliance on experimental captive research focused only on dyadic interactions. Here, evidence to the contrary is provided from studies of wild chimpanzees as they naturally cooperate in sizable groups. Collective intentions are inferable when they go on patrol, when they mob predators, when they go hunting, and when large coalitions gang-attack disliked members of the same community. This last behavior has particularly significant pre-adaptive implications for the evolution of moralistic social control, and it suggests that moral evolution has deep roots, going back to the Last Common Ancestor of humans, bonobos, and chimpanzees.
KEYWORDS: Chimpanzee attacks, coalitions, collective intentions, cooperation, moral evolution, problem solving, punishment, social sanctions, social selection
Sunday, September 2, 2018
An evolutionary approach to paranoia that more fully accounts for its complex social phenomenology & considers how it can be understood in light of our evolved social cognition, to form coalitions & coordinate between groups in situations of cooperation & competition
Raihani, Nichola, and Vaughan Bell. 2018. “An Evolutionary Perspective on Paranoia.” PsyArXiv. September 2. doi:10.31234/osf.io/fgrnx
Abstract: Although paranoia is the most commonly presenting symptom of psychosis, paranoid thoughts occur frequently in the general population and range widely in severity, from mild socio-evaluative concerns to frank delusions about the harmful intentions of others. Furthermore, paranoia commonly appears after a surprisingly diverse range of difficulties including trauma, brain injury, sleep deprivation, drug use, and psychiatric and neurological disorder. Evolutionary accounts of paranoia have been proposed before but have largely focused on paranoia as a misplaced threat response. Although social threat is clearly a key component, the experience of paranoia is markedly more complex than these accounts would lead us to believe: paranoia can involve multiple alterations in the perception of the social environment, the identification of specific but seemingly arbitrary groups as the source of persecution, and extended beliefs about conspiracy and complex coordination between the perceived persecutors. Here, we argue for an evolutionary approach to paranoia that more fully accounts for its complex social phenomenology and considers how it can be understood in light of our evolved social cognition. More specifically, in terms of the ability to form coalitions and coordinate between groups in situations of cooperation and competition.
Abstract: Although paranoia is the most commonly presenting symptom of psychosis, paranoid thoughts occur frequently in the general population and range widely in severity, from mild socio-evaluative concerns to frank delusions about the harmful intentions of others. Furthermore, paranoia commonly appears after a surprisingly diverse range of difficulties including trauma, brain injury, sleep deprivation, drug use, and psychiatric and neurological disorder. Evolutionary accounts of paranoia have been proposed before but have largely focused on paranoia as a misplaced threat response. Although social threat is clearly a key component, the experience of paranoia is markedly more complex than these accounts would lead us to believe: paranoia can involve multiple alterations in the perception of the social environment, the identification of specific but seemingly arbitrary groups as the source of persecution, and extended beliefs about conspiracy and complex coordination between the perceived persecutors. Here, we argue for an evolutionary approach to paranoia that more fully accounts for its complex social phenomenology and considers how it can be understood in light of our evolved social cognition. More specifically, in terms of the ability to form coalitions and coordinate between groups in situations of cooperation and competition.
Dispositional free riders cooperate only when punishment is possible, whereas dispositional conditional cooperators cooperate without punishment; punishment by DCC and DFR is practically identical
Dispositional free riders do not free ride on punishment. Till O. Weber, Ori Weisel & Simon Gächter. Nature Communications, volume 9, Article number: 2390 (2018). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-04775-8
Abstract: Strong reciprocity explains prosocial cooperation by the presence of individuals who incur costs to help those who helped them (‘strong positive reciprocity’) and to punish those who wronged them (‘strong negative reciprocity’). Theories of social preferences predict that in contrast to ‘strong reciprocators’, self-regarding people cooperate and punish only if there are sufficient future benefits. Here, we test this prediction in a two-stage design. First, participants are classified according to their disposition towards strong positive reciprocity as either dispositional conditional cooperators (DCC) or dispositional free riders (DFR). Participants then play a one-shot public goods game, either with or without punishment. As expected, DFR cooperate only when punishment is possible, whereas DCC cooperate without punishment. Surprisingly, dispositions towards strong positive reciprocity are unrelated to strong negative reciprocity: punishment by DCC and DFR is practically identical. The ‘burden of cooperation’ is thus carried by a larger set of individuals than previously assumed.
Abstract: Strong reciprocity explains prosocial cooperation by the presence of individuals who incur costs to help those who helped them (‘strong positive reciprocity’) and to punish those who wronged them (‘strong negative reciprocity’). Theories of social preferences predict that in contrast to ‘strong reciprocators’, self-regarding people cooperate and punish only if there are sufficient future benefits. Here, we test this prediction in a two-stage design. First, participants are classified according to their disposition towards strong positive reciprocity as either dispositional conditional cooperators (DCC) or dispositional free riders (DFR). Participants then play a one-shot public goods game, either with or without punishment. As expected, DFR cooperate only when punishment is possible, whereas DCC cooperate without punishment. Surprisingly, dispositions towards strong positive reciprocity are unrelated to strong negative reciprocity: punishment by DCC and DFR is practically identical. The ‘burden of cooperation’ is thus carried by a larger set of individuals than previously assumed.
Gender Effects of BDSM Participants on Self-Reported Psychological Distress Levels: BDSM as leisure reduces stress for females and males, with stress reduction being more significant with females
Gender Effects of BDSM Participants on Self-Reported Psychological Distress Levels. Thea Alvarado, Emily E. Prior, Jeremy N. Thomas, DJ Williams. http://journalofpositivesexuality.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Gender-Effects-of-BDSM-Participants-on-Self-Reported-Psychological-Distress-Levels-Alvarado-Prior-Thomas-Williams.pdf
Brief Description: This study examines the connections between perceived stress, gender, and BDSM as a leisure activity that may reduce stress for individuals. This study found statistically significant results that BDSM as leisure reduces stress for females and males, with stress reduction being more significant with females.
Keywords: gender, stress, BDSM, power, BDSM as leisure
Brief Description: This study examines the connections between perceived stress, gender, and BDSM as a leisure activity that may reduce stress for individuals. This study found statistically significant results that BDSM as leisure reduces stress for females and males, with stress reduction being more significant with females.
Keywords: gender, stress, BDSM, power, BDSM as leisure
A Failure of Academic Quality Control: Rachel Maines' The Technology of Orgasm as a cautionary tale for how easily falsehoods can be come embedded in the humanities
A Failure of Academic Quality Control: The Technology of Orgasm. Lieberman & Schatzberg. Journal of Positive Sexuality, Vol. 4, No. 2, August 2018. http://journalofpositivesexuality.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Failure-of-Academic-Quality-Control-Technology-of-Orgasm-Lieberman-Schatzberg.pdf
Abstract: The Technology of Orgasm by Rachel Maines is one of the most widely cited works on the history of sex and technology. Maines argues that Victorian physicians routinely used electromechanical vibrators to stimulate female patients to orgasm as a treatment for hysteria. She claims that physicians did not perceive the practice as sexual because it did not involve vaginal penetration. The vibrator was, according to Maines, a labor-saving technology to replace the well -established medical practice of clitoral massage for hysteria. This argument has been repeated almost verbatim in dozens of scholarly works, popular books and articles, a Broadway play, and a feature-length film. Although a few scholars have challenged parts of the book, no one has contested her central argument in the pe er-reviewed literature. In this article, we carefully assess the sources cited in the book. We found no evidence in these sources that physicians ever used electromechanical vibrators to induce orgasms in female patients as a medical treatment. The success of Technology of Orgasm serves as a cautionary tale for how easily falsehoods can be come embedded in the humanities.
Abstract: The Technology of Orgasm by Rachel Maines is one of the most widely cited works on the history of sex and technology. Maines argues that Victorian physicians routinely used electromechanical vibrators to stimulate female patients to orgasm as a treatment for hysteria. She claims that physicians did not perceive the practice as sexual because it did not involve vaginal penetration. The vibrator was, according to Maines, a labor-saving technology to replace the well -established medical practice of clitoral massage for hysteria. This argument has been repeated almost verbatim in dozens of scholarly works, popular books and articles, a Broadway play, and a feature-length film. Although a few scholars have challenged parts of the book, no one has contested her central argument in the pe er-reviewed literature. In this article, we carefully assess the sources cited in the book. We found no evidence in these sources that physicians ever used electromechanical vibrators to induce orgasms in female patients as a medical treatment. The success of Technology of Orgasm serves as a cautionary tale for how easily falsehoods can be come embedded in the humanities.
We analyze whether subjective well-being predicts better chances of surviving diseases such as cancer or heart conditions; well-being doesn't mitigate the effect these diseases have on mortality; same happens with life satisfaction
Smile or Die: Can Subjective Well-Being Increase Survival in the Face of Substantive Health Impairments? Martin Binder, Guido Buenstorf. Economics & Human Biology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2018.08.004
Highlights
• Subjective well-being increases survival in BHPS panel data set for UK
• This effect captures in part the assessment of one’s health status
• This effect disappears when controlling for endogeneity by lagging SWB
• Specific illnesses (e.g. cancer) decrease survival but SWB does not moderate this
• SWB is at best protective rather than curative when it comes to mortality
Abstract: A robust relationship between subjective well-being and mortality has been established in the literature, but few studies address how subjective well-being interacts with the impact of concrete diseases on survival. In addition, issues of endogeneity between bad health and subjective well-being are ignored when it comes to survival. We assess both for the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS; 1991-2008) and specifically analyze whether subjective well-being predicts better chances of surviving diseases such as cancer or heart conditions. We find that several of the studied diseases consistently decrease survival chances in our sample (e.g. hazard ratio 3.47 for cancer), also when controlling for the severity of health problems. But our results do not suggest that well-being mitigates the effect these diseases have on mortality. Life satisfaction also does not predict longer survival in the data set if we control for the endogeneity of subjective well-being.
Highlights
• Subjective well-being increases survival in BHPS panel data set for UK
• This effect captures in part the assessment of one’s health status
• This effect disappears when controlling for endogeneity by lagging SWB
• Specific illnesses (e.g. cancer) decrease survival but SWB does not moderate this
• SWB is at best protective rather than curative when it comes to mortality
Abstract: A robust relationship between subjective well-being and mortality has been established in the literature, but few studies address how subjective well-being interacts with the impact of concrete diseases on survival. In addition, issues of endogeneity between bad health and subjective well-being are ignored when it comes to survival. We assess both for the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS; 1991-2008) and specifically analyze whether subjective well-being predicts better chances of surviving diseases such as cancer or heart conditions. We find that several of the studied diseases consistently decrease survival chances in our sample (e.g. hazard ratio 3.47 for cancer), also when controlling for the severity of health problems. But our results do not suggest that well-being mitigates the effect these diseases have on mortality. Life satisfaction also does not predict longer survival in the data set if we control for the endogeneity of subjective well-being.
Non-pharmacological factors modulate pharmacological action of drugs; environmental conditions shape drug search and self-administration; social stress is a crucial determinant of effects; drug instrumentalization allows highly specific drug use in non-addicts
Non-pharmacological factors that determine drug use and addiction. Serge H. Ahmed e al. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.08.015
Highlights
• Non-pharmacological factors modulate pharmacological action of addictive drugs.
• We review the neurobiological mechanisms of non-pharmacological influences.
• Environmental conditions shape drug search and self-administration.
• Social stress is a crucial determinant of drug effects.
• Drug instrumentalization allows highly specific drug use in non-addicts.
• Behavioral alternatives shape drug choice and consumption patterns.
Abstract: Based on their pharmacological properties, psychoactive drugs are supposed to take control of the natural reward system to finally drive compulsory drug seeking and consumption. However, psychoactive drugs are not used in an arbitrary way as pure pharmacological reinforcement would suggest, but rather in a highly specific manner depending on non-pharmacological factors. While pharmacological effects of psychoactive drugs are well studied, neurobiological mechanisms of non-pharmacological factors are less well understood. Here we review the emerging neurobiological mechanisms beyond pharmacological reinforcement which determine drug effects and use frequency. Important progress was made on the understanding of how the character of an environment and social stress determine drug self-administration. This is expanded by new evidence on how behavioral alternatives and opportunities for drug instrumentalization generate different patterns of drug choice. Emerging evidence suggests that the neurobiology of non-pharmacological factors strongly determines pharmacological and behavioral drug action and may, thus, give rise for an expanded system’s approach of psychoactive drug use and addiction.
Highlights
• Non-pharmacological factors modulate pharmacological action of addictive drugs.
• We review the neurobiological mechanisms of non-pharmacological influences.
• Environmental conditions shape drug search and self-administration.
• Social stress is a crucial determinant of drug effects.
• Drug instrumentalization allows highly specific drug use in non-addicts.
• Behavioral alternatives shape drug choice and consumption patterns.
Abstract: Based on their pharmacological properties, psychoactive drugs are supposed to take control of the natural reward system to finally drive compulsory drug seeking and consumption. However, psychoactive drugs are not used in an arbitrary way as pure pharmacological reinforcement would suggest, but rather in a highly specific manner depending on non-pharmacological factors. While pharmacological effects of psychoactive drugs are well studied, neurobiological mechanisms of non-pharmacological factors are less well understood. Here we review the emerging neurobiological mechanisms beyond pharmacological reinforcement which determine drug effects and use frequency. Important progress was made on the understanding of how the character of an environment and social stress determine drug self-administration. This is expanded by new evidence on how behavioral alternatives and opportunities for drug instrumentalization generate different patterns of drug choice. Emerging evidence suggests that the neurobiology of non-pharmacological factors strongly determines pharmacological and behavioral drug action and may, thus, give rise for an expanded system’s approach of psychoactive drug use and addiction.
Having higher income does not increase the tendency to believe that income is deserved due to effort; in the case of health, higher self reported state of health seems to increase the tendency to associate bad health with bad habits & lifestyle choices
Merit or luck - An interpretation of people’s beliefs from an economic perspective. Karen Høgholen. May 11th 2018, Master of Philosophy in Economics, Department of Economics, University of Oslo, https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/63119/7/H-gholen-Karen.pdf
Abstract: This thesis studies the tendency people seem to have to belittle the role of luck in life outcomes, especially in the aftermath of success. Translating high income and high state of health to reflect sings of success, I analyse whether having high income or high state of health affects the proneness to believe, that income or health is achieved mainly trough own actions rather than luck. Beliefs around luck are noted to be affecting preferences over redistribution, and this aspect is explored by investigating the relationship between beliefs about societal versus individual responsibility over drug addiction problems. Ordered and binary logistic regression models are constructed to inspect the relationship between beliefs and belief determining predictors, utilising data from a Norwegian survey scanning people’s opinions around drug addiction and responsibility. The main findings suggest that having higher income does not significantly increase the tendency to believe that income is deserved due to effort. Whereas in the case of health, higher self reported state of health seems to increase the tendency to associate bad health with bad habits and lifestyle choices. For the aspect of beliefs about redistribution, it seems like the more the cause of an addiction is related to individual responsibility, the higher is the tendency to think that the addiction problem remains to be solved by the individual himself, rather than being something the society should be responsible for. The role of beliefs in economic theory in general, and what implications beliefs around luck and control have in a policy context is discussed. Parts of an economic model of belief forming mechanisms by Benabou and Tirole (2006), is also presented as an inspiration for the overall themes discussed in this thesis.
Abstract: This thesis studies the tendency people seem to have to belittle the role of luck in life outcomes, especially in the aftermath of success. Translating high income and high state of health to reflect sings of success, I analyse whether having high income or high state of health affects the proneness to believe, that income or health is achieved mainly trough own actions rather than luck. Beliefs around luck are noted to be affecting preferences over redistribution, and this aspect is explored by investigating the relationship between beliefs about societal versus individual responsibility over drug addiction problems. Ordered and binary logistic regression models are constructed to inspect the relationship between beliefs and belief determining predictors, utilising data from a Norwegian survey scanning people’s opinions around drug addiction and responsibility. The main findings suggest that having higher income does not significantly increase the tendency to believe that income is deserved due to effort. Whereas in the case of health, higher self reported state of health seems to increase the tendency to associate bad health with bad habits and lifestyle choices. For the aspect of beliefs about redistribution, it seems like the more the cause of an addiction is related to individual responsibility, the higher is the tendency to think that the addiction problem remains to be solved by the individual himself, rather than being something the society should be responsible for. The role of beliefs in economic theory in general, and what implications beliefs around luck and control have in a policy context is discussed. Parts of an economic model of belief forming mechanisms by Benabou and Tirole (2006), is also presented as an inspiration for the overall themes discussed in this thesis.
Saturday, September 1, 2018
The gender gap in risk-taking among the most competent students reduced the odds that high-ability women received top exam scores, creating gender inequality in outcomes among top performers
Who’s on Top?: Gender Differences in Risk-Taking Produce Unequal Outcomes for High-Ability Women and Men. Susan R. Fisk. Social Psychology Quarterly, https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272518796512
Abstract: Research shows that men are more likely to take risks than women, but there is scant evidence that this produces gender inequality. To address this gap, I analyzed engineering exam scores that used an unusual grading procedure. I found small average gender differences in risk-taking that did not produce gendered outcomes for students of average or poor ability. But the gender gap in risk-taking among the most competent students reduced the odds that high-ability women received top exam scores. These results demonstrate that gender differences in risk-taking can produce gender inequality in outcomes among top performers. This suggests that the upward mobility of high-ability women may be depressed relative to equally competent men in male-typed institutional settings in which outcomes are influenced by both ability and risk-taking. In this manner, these results provide new insights into the microlevel social-psychological processes that produce and reproduce gender inequality.
Keywords: gender, gender inequality, mobility, risk-taking, work
Abstract: Research shows that men are more likely to take risks than women, but there is scant evidence that this produces gender inequality. To address this gap, I analyzed engineering exam scores that used an unusual grading procedure. I found small average gender differences in risk-taking that did not produce gendered outcomes for students of average or poor ability. But the gender gap in risk-taking among the most competent students reduced the odds that high-ability women received top exam scores. These results demonstrate that gender differences in risk-taking can produce gender inequality in outcomes among top performers. This suggests that the upward mobility of high-ability women may be depressed relative to equally competent men in male-typed institutional settings in which outcomes are influenced by both ability and risk-taking. In this manner, these results provide new insights into the microlevel social-psychological processes that produce and reproduce gender inequality.
Keywords: gender, gender inequality, mobility, risk-taking, work
Civil inattention: Even when action has been taken to clean it up, plastic bags filled with dog droppings have been thrown onto the ground in certain carefully selected spots or even hung up in trees or displayed on fence posts or railings
Gross, Mathias, Horta, Ana (2017). Dog shit happens: human–canine interactions and the immediacy of excremental presence. In Bradley H. Brewster and Antony J. Puddephatt (Eds.), Microsociological Perspectives for Environmental Sociology, pp. 143-160. London & New York: Routledge. http://hdl.handle.net/10451/26761
Abstract: When it comes to a human’s best friend it seems Western societies turn a blind eye to practices that fail to meet their usually high standards of everyday hygiene. This chapter will explore practices related to canine excrement and the micro-interactionist strategies deployed by dog owners and non-owners to cope with it. We present here the results of our own observations of the habitual behavior of dog-walkers at various times of the day in various settings, mainly in Germany and Portugal – the authors’ respective countries of residence – but also report on similar observations made in Poland, France, Belgium, Britain, and Japan. Our account is also based on our own experiences of dog walking and engaging in the removal of excrement. We draw additionally on a number of informal conversations with dog owners and non-owners on such topics, including the techniques used to deal with excrement, as well as reports and discussions published online. In thus exploring the ways dog waste is removed, we try and solve the riddle of why, in some cases, even when action has been taken to clean it up, plastic bags filled with dog droppings have been thrown onto the ground in certain carefully selected spots or even hung up in trees or displayed on fence posts or railings. The chapter will present inquiries into micro-forms of interactional behavior and dog walking and pooping practices. Some of these strategies will be accounted for as qualitatively new forms of what Erving Goffman (1971) once referred to as civil inattention. Thus, we explore the logic of civil inattention by focusing on what might be called “poop on display.”
Abstract: When it comes to a human’s best friend it seems Western societies turn a blind eye to practices that fail to meet their usually high standards of everyday hygiene. This chapter will explore practices related to canine excrement and the micro-interactionist strategies deployed by dog owners and non-owners to cope with it. We present here the results of our own observations of the habitual behavior of dog-walkers at various times of the day in various settings, mainly in Germany and Portugal – the authors’ respective countries of residence – but also report on similar observations made in Poland, France, Belgium, Britain, and Japan. Our account is also based on our own experiences of dog walking and engaging in the removal of excrement. We draw additionally on a number of informal conversations with dog owners and non-owners on such topics, including the techniques used to deal with excrement, as well as reports and discussions published online. In thus exploring the ways dog waste is removed, we try and solve the riddle of why, in some cases, even when action has been taken to clean it up, plastic bags filled with dog droppings have been thrown onto the ground in certain carefully selected spots or even hung up in trees or displayed on fence posts or railings. The chapter will present inquiries into micro-forms of interactional behavior and dog walking and pooping practices. Some of these strategies will be accounted for as qualitatively new forms of what Erving Goffman (1971) once referred to as civil inattention. Thus, we explore the logic of civil inattention by focusing on what might be called “poop on display.”
Friday, August 31, 2018
Populations of lateral entorhinal cortex neurons represent time inherently through the encoding of experience: this may be integrated with spatial inputs from the medial entorhinal cortex in the hippocampus, storing a unified representation of what, where and when
Integrating time from experience in the lateral entorhinal cortex. Albert Tsao, Jørgen Sugar, Li Lu, Cheng Wang, James J. Knierim, May-Britt Moser & Edvard I. Moser. Nature (2018), https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0459-6
Abstract: The encoding of time and its binding to events are crucial for episodic memory, but how these processes are carried out in hippocampal–entorhinal circuits is unclear. Here we show in freely foraging rats that temporal information is robustly encoded across time scales from seconds to hours within the overall population state of the lateral entorhinal cortex. Similarly pronounced encoding of time was not present in the medial entorhinal cortex or in hippocampal areas CA3–CA1. When animals’ experiences were constrained by behavioural tasks to become similar across repeated trials, the encoding of temporal flow across trials was reduced, whereas the encoding of time relative to the start of trials was improved. The findings suggest that populations of lateral entorhinal cortex neurons represent time inherently through the encoding of experience. This representation of episodic time may be integrated with spatial inputs from the medial entorhinal cortex in the hippocampus, allowing the hippocampus to store a unified representation of what, where and when.
Abstract: The encoding of time and its binding to events are crucial for episodic memory, but how these processes are carried out in hippocampal–entorhinal circuits is unclear. Here we show in freely foraging rats that temporal information is robustly encoded across time scales from seconds to hours within the overall population state of the lateral entorhinal cortex. Similarly pronounced encoding of time was not present in the medial entorhinal cortex or in hippocampal areas CA3–CA1. When animals’ experiences were constrained by behavioural tasks to become similar across repeated trials, the encoding of temporal flow across trials was reduced, whereas the encoding of time relative to the start of trials was improved. The findings suggest that populations of lateral entorhinal cortex neurons represent time inherently through the encoding of experience. This representation of episodic time may be integrated with spatial inputs from the medial entorhinal cortex in the hippocampus, allowing the hippocampus to store a unified representation of what, where and when.
Seen a widening gap between star firms (defined as those in top 10% of return on invested capital in any year) & the rest of the economy over time, especially in industries that rely on a skilled labor force, until you measure well intangible capital
Ayyagari, Meghana and Demirgüç-Kunt, Asli and Maksimovic, Vojislav, Who are America's Star Firms? (August 13, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3230154
Abstract: There is widespread concern about a growing gap between top-performing publicly listed firms and the rest of the economy and the implications of this for rising inequality in the U.S. Using conventional return calculations, there is indeed a widening gap between star firms (defined as those in top 10% of return on invested capital in any year) and the rest of the economy over time, especially in industries that rely on a skilled labor force. However, once measurement error in intangible capital is accounted for, this gap shrinks dramatically and has not been widening over time. While pricing power, as measured by markups, predicts star firm status, a large fraction of star firms have low markups and there is no evidence that star firms are cutting output or investment more than other firms for the same markup. The effect of star status is persistent. Five years later, star firms have higher growth, pro ts, and Tobin's Q. A small subset of exceptional firms may pose more pressing policy concerns with much higher returns and the potential to exercise market power in the future.
Keywords: star firms, intangible capital, organizational capital, industry concentration, ROIC, capital expenditure
JEL Classification: G30, G31, G32, L22, L23, L25
Abstract: There is widespread concern about a growing gap between top-performing publicly listed firms and the rest of the economy and the implications of this for rising inequality in the U.S. Using conventional return calculations, there is indeed a widening gap between star firms (defined as those in top 10% of return on invested capital in any year) and the rest of the economy over time, especially in industries that rely on a skilled labor force. However, once measurement error in intangible capital is accounted for, this gap shrinks dramatically and has not been widening over time. While pricing power, as measured by markups, predicts star firm status, a large fraction of star firms have low markups and there is no evidence that star firms are cutting output or investment more than other firms for the same markup. The effect of star status is persistent. Five years later, star firms have higher growth, pro ts, and Tobin's Q. A small subset of exceptional firms may pose more pressing policy concerns with much higher returns and the potential to exercise market power in the future.
Keywords: star firms, intangible capital, organizational capital, industry concentration, ROIC, capital expenditure
JEL Classification: G30, G31, G32, L22, L23, L25
We knew that people search for balance in moral behavior such that they feel licensed to behave less morally after a previous moral act (licensing) & cleanse previous morally questionable behaviors by subsequently behaving more morally (cleansing)
Taking Close Others’ Environmental Behavior Into Account When Striking the Moral Balance? Evidence for Vicarious Licensing, Not for Vicarious Cleansing. Marijn H. C. Meijers et al. Environment and Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518773148
Abstract: Research shows that people search for balance in their moral (e.g., environmentally friendly) behaviors such that they feel licensed to behave less morally after a previous moral act (licensing) and cleanse previous morally questionable behaviors by subsequently behaving more morally (cleansing). This article investigates whether this balancing may extend to close others, but not to nonclose others, and tests vicarious licensing and cleansing in the environmental domain. Study 1 showed that vicarious licensing effects are more likely when a close other displayed environmentally friendly (vs. neutral) behavior. Study 2 showed that environmental vicarious licensing effects are more likely for close than nonclose others. Studies 3 and 4 suggested that vicarious licensing effects, but not vicarious cleansing effects are more likely for close (vs. nonclose) others. Finally, a meta-analysis showed that overall these studies provide evidence for vicarious licensing effects, but not for vicarious cleansing effects in the environmental domain.
Keywords: environmentally friendly, licensing, cleansing, vicarious, self–other overlap, morality
Abstract: Research shows that people search for balance in their moral (e.g., environmentally friendly) behaviors such that they feel licensed to behave less morally after a previous moral act (licensing) and cleanse previous morally questionable behaviors by subsequently behaving more morally (cleansing). This article investigates whether this balancing may extend to close others, but not to nonclose others, and tests vicarious licensing and cleansing in the environmental domain. Study 1 showed that vicarious licensing effects are more likely when a close other displayed environmentally friendly (vs. neutral) behavior. Study 2 showed that environmental vicarious licensing effects are more likely for close than nonclose others. Studies 3 and 4 suggested that vicarious licensing effects, but not vicarious cleansing effects are more likely for close (vs. nonclose) others. Finally, a meta-analysis showed that overall these studies provide evidence for vicarious licensing effects, but not for vicarious cleansing effects in the environmental domain.
Keywords: environmentally friendly, licensing, cleansing, vicarious, self–other overlap, morality
We ask whether people in a strategic situation follow the Golden Rule, that is, do not treat others in ways that they find disagreeable to themselves; over three quarters of the experiments' subjects do so
Role-Reversal Consistency: An Experimental Study of the Golden Rule. Miguel A. Costa‐Gomes, Yuan Ju, Jiawen Li. Economic Inquiry, https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12708
Abstract: We report an experiment that asks whether people in a strategic situation behave according to the Golden Rule, that is, do not treat others in ways that they find disagreeable to themselves, a property that we call role‐reversal consistency. Overall, we find that over three quarters of the subjects are role‐reversal consistent. Regression analysis suggests that this finding is not driven by players maximizing their subjective expected monetary earnings given their stated beliefs about their opponents' behavior. We find that subjects' stated beliefs and actions reveal mild projection bias. (JEL C78, C91)
Abstract: We report an experiment that asks whether people in a strategic situation behave according to the Golden Rule, that is, do not treat others in ways that they find disagreeable to themselves, a property that we call role‐reversal consistency. Overall, we find that over three quarters of the subjects are role‐reversal consistent. Regression analysis suggests that this finding is not driven by players maximizing their subjective expected monetary earnings given their stated beliefs about their opponents' behavior. We find that subjects' stated beliefs and actions reveal mild projection bias. (JEL C78, C91)
Thursday, August 30, 2018
Jerkies, tacos, burgers: individuals low on subjective socioeconomic status have a greater preference for meat, effect driven by a desire for status & not by felt hunger or power, & not generalizable to plant foods
Jerkies, tacos, and burgers: Subjective socioeconomic status and meat preference. Eugene Y. Chan, Natalina Zlatevska. Appetite, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2018.08.027
Abstract: In mankind's evolutionary past, those who consumed meat were strong and powerful and thus man saw meat as indicative of social status. This symbolic connection between meat and status persists today. Thus, based upon psychological theories of compensation, individuals low on subjective socioeconomic status (SES) should have a greater preference for meat, as meat may be substitutable for the status that they lack. Three experiments tested this premise. Participants who felt low on subjective SES preferred meat-based foods compared to participants who felt high on it (Experiment 1). The effect is driven by a desire for status (Experiments 2–3) and not by felt hunger or power (Experiments 1–2) and not generalizable to plant foods (Experiment 3). The results suggest a symbolic link between meat and status, which has intriguingly not yet been empirically shown, and we also demonstrate a consequence of the link for food preference. The results may be of use for doctors who advise eating less meat to improve physical health and for environmental advocates who argue that meat consumption exacerbates global warming. We will also discuss the contributions of and further avenues based on our work.
Abstract: In mankind's evolutionary past, those who consumed meat were strong and powerful and thus man saw meat as indicative of social status. This symbolic connection between meat and status persists today. Thus, based upon psychological theories of compensation, individuals low on subjective socioeconomic status (SES) should have a greater preference for meat, as meat may be substitutable for the status that they lack. Three experiments tested this premise. Participants who felt low on subjective SES preferred meat-based foods compared to participants who felt high on it (Experiment 1). The effect is driven by a desire for status (Experiments 2–3) and not by felt hunger or power (Experiments 1–2) and not generalizable to plant foods (Experiment 3). The results suggest a symbolic link between meat and status, which has intriguingly not yet been empirically shown, and we also demonstrate a consequence of the link for food preference. The results may be of use for doctors who advise eating less meat to improve physical health and for environmental advocates who argue that meat consumption exacerbates global warming. We will also discuss the contributions of and further avenues based on our work.
Participants stated their opinions about salient political issues, & we covertly altered some of their responses to indicate an opposite position; we asked to verify the manipulated responses, & only half of the manipulations were corrected by the participants
False beliefs and confabulation can lead to lasting changes in political attitudes. Strandberg T, Sivén D, Hall L, Johansson P, Pärnamets P. Journal of experimental psychology. General 147:9 2018 Sep pg 1382-1399. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-42340-004
Abstract: In times of increasing polarization and political acrimony, fueled by distrust of government and media disinformation, it is ever more important to understand the cognitive mechanisms behind political attitude change. In two experiments, we present evidence that false beliefs about one's own prior attitudes and confabulatory reasoning can lead to lasting changes in political attitudes. In Experiment 1 (N = 140), participants stated their opinions about salient political issues, and using the Choice Blindness Paradigm we covertly altered some of their responses to indicate an opposite position. In the first condition, we asked the participants to immediately verify the manipulated responses, and in the second, we also asked them to provide underlying arguments behind their attitudes. Only half of the manipulations were corrected by the participants. To measure lasting attitude change, we asked the participants to rate the same issues again later in the experiment, as well as one week after the first session. Participants in both conditions exhibited lasting shifts in attitudes, but the effect was considerably larger in the group that confabulated supporting arguments. We fully replicated these findings in Experiment 2 (N = 232). In addition, we found that participants' analytical skill correlated with their correction of the manipulation, whereas political involvement did not. This study contributes to the understanding of how confabulatory reasoning and self-perceptive processes can interact in lasting attitude change. It also highlights how political expressions can be both stable in the context of everyday life, yet flexible when argumentative processes are engaged.
Abstract: In times of increasing polarization and political acrimony, fueled by distrust of government and media disinformation, it is ever more important to understand the cognitive mechanisms behind political attitude change. In two experiments, we present evidence that false beliefs about one's own prior attitudes and confabulatory reasoning can lead to lasting changes in political attitudes. In Experiment 1 (N = 140), participants stated their opinions about salient political issues, and using the Choice Blindness Paradigm we covertly altered some of their responses to indicate an opposite position. In the first condition, we asked the participants to immediately verify the manipulated responses, and in the second, we also asked them to provide underlying arguments behind their attitudes. Only half of the manipulations were corrected by the participants. To measure lasting attitude change, we asked the participants to rate the same issues again later in the experiment, as well as one week after the first session. Participants in both conditions exhibited lasting shifts in attitudes, but the effect was considerably larger in the group that confabulated supporting arguments. We fully replicated these findings in Experiment 2 (N = 232). In addition, we found that participants' analytical skill correlated with their correction of the manipulation, whereas political involvement did not. This study contributes to the understanding of how confabulatory reasoning and self-perceptive processes can interact in lasting attitude change. It also highlights how political expressions can be both stable in the context of everyday life, yet flexible when argumentative processes are engaged.
The increased use of financial contracts to manage household risk is associated with a decline in religious adherence & smaller church congregations, a cost-benefit analysis leads households to replace their participation in social networks with lower-cost financial contracts
Cronqvist, Henrik and Warachka, Mitch and Yu, Frank, Does Finance Make Us Less Social? (July 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3229344
Abstract: Formal financial contracts and informal risk-sharing agreements within social networks both enable households to manage risk. Using an exogenous reduction in the cost of financial contracting, we find that the increased use of financial contracts to manage household risk is associated with a decline in religious adherence and smaller church congregations. These results indicate that a cost-benefit analysis leads households to replace their participation in social networks with lower-cost financial contracts. Our study contributes toward understanding the implications of emerging technologies known collectively as FinTech that lower the cost of financial contracting.
Keywords: Household Risk Management, Social Networks, FinTech
JEL Classification: G02, G28
Abstract: Formal financial contracts and informal risk-sharing agreements within social networks both enable households to manage risk. Using an exogenous reduction in the cost of financial contracting, we find that the increased use of financial contracts to manage household risk is associated with a decline in religious adherence and smaller church congregations. These results indicate that a cost-benefit analysis leads households to replace their participation in social networks with lower-cost financial contracts. Our study contributes toward understanding the implications of emerging technologies known collectively as FinTech that lower the cost of financial contracting.
Keywords: Household Risk Management, Social Networks, FinTech
JEL Classification: G02, G28
Wednesday, August 29, 2018
Voters face tradeoffs between self-interest and the common good; experiment participants are more likely to choose the policy that earns them more money, even when the policy is detrimental to the common good
Selfish and Cooperative Voting: Can the Majority Restrain Themselves? Bowen Cho, Scott Bokemper, Andrew W. Delton. Political Behavior, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-018-9495-z
Abstract: At every scale from small committees to national elections, voters face tradeoffs between self-interest and the common good. We report three experiments in which participants vote for policies with real payoffs at stake. We manipulate self-interest by randomly assigning participants to two groups in society with different policy payoffs. Participants in the majority group are confronted by a simple choice between a policy that is better for themselves or a policy that is best for society. Overall, we find a clear effect of self-interest: Participants are more likely to choose the policy that earns them more money, compared to participants in the other group, even when the policy is detrimental to the common good. Simultaneously, we observe considerable levels of cooperative voting among participants in the majority, ranging from 47% to 79% across different payoff regimes. Finally, participants were not more cooperative when voting compared to when they chose between the same policies with a lottery or leader institution, departing from the hypothesis that voting institutions promote cooperative motives. We discuss implications for multiple literatures about voting behavior.
Abstract: At every scale from small committees to national elections, voters face tradeoffs between self-interest and the common good. We report three experiments in which participants vote for policies with real payoffs at stake. We manipulate self-interest by randomly assigning participants to two groups in society with different policy payoffs. Participants in the majority group are confronted by a simple choice between a policy that is better for themselves or a policy that is best for society. Overall, we find a clear effect of self-interest: Participants are more likely to choose the policy that earns them more money, compared to participants in the other group, even when the policy is detrimental to the common good. Simultaneously, we observe considerable levels of cooperative voting among participants in the majority, ranging from 47% to 79% across different payoff regimes. Finally, participants were not more cooperative when voting compared to when they chose between the same policies with a lottery or leader institution, departing from the hypothesis that voting institutions promote cooperative motives. We discuss implications for multiple literatures about voting behavior.
Perceptions of scientific consensus do not predict later beliefs about the reality of climate change, but the inverse pathway was significant for liberals: personal beliefs about the reality of anthropogenic CC prospectively predicted subsequent estimates of consensus
Perceptions of scientific consensus do not predict later beliefs about the reality of climate change: A test of the gateway belief model using cross-lagged panel analysis. John Richard Kerr, Marc Stewart Wilson. Journal of Environmental Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.08.012
Highlights
• Study examined link between perceptions of scientific consensus and beliefs.
• Variables captured at two time points in student sample.
• Perceived consensus does not predict later personal climate beliefs.
• Beliefs predict later perceived consensus for liberal, but not conservative, voters.
Abstract: The gateway belief model posits that perceptions of scientific agreement play a causal role in shaping beliefs about the existence of anthropogenic climate change. However, experimental support for the model is mixed. The current study takes a longitudinal approach, examining the causal relationships between perceived consensus and beliefs. Perceptions of scientific consensus and personal beliefs about climate change were collected over a five-month period in a student sample (N = 356). Cross-lagged panel analysis revealed that perceived scientific consensus did not prospectively predict personal agreement with the reality of climate change, thus the current study did not find support for the gateway belief model. However, the inverse pathway was significant for those with liberal voting intentions: personal beliefs about the reality of anthropogenic climate change prospectively predicted subsequent estimates of consensus. The results suggest that individuals’ perceptions of a consensus among scientists do not have a strong influence on their personal beliefs about climate change.
Highlights
• Study examined link between perceptions of scientific consensus and beliefs.
• Variables captured at two time points in student sample.
• Perceived consensus does not predict later personal climate beliefs.
• Beliefs predict later perceived consensus for liberal, but not conservative, voters.
Abstract: The gateway belief model posits that perceptions of scientific agreement play a causal role in shaping beliefs about the existence of anthropogenic climate change. However, experimental support for the model is mixed. The current study takes a longitudinal approach, examining the causal relationships between perceived consensus and beliefs. Perceptions of scientific consensus and personal beliefs about climate change were collected over a five-month period in a student sample (N = 356). Cross-lagged panel analysis revealed that perceived scientific consensus did not prospectively predict personal agreement with the reality of climate change, thus the current study did not find support for the gateway belief model. However, the inverse pathway was significant for those with liberal voting intentions: personal beliefs about the reality of anthropogenic climate change prospectively predicted subsequent estimates of consensus. The results suggest that individuals’ perceptions of a consensus among scientists do not have a strong influence on their personal beliefs about climate change.
Why Milk Consumption is the Bigger Problem: Ethical Implications and Deaths per Calorie Created of Milk (and cheese!) Compared to Meat Production
Why Milk Consumption is the Bigger Problem: Ethical Implications and Deaths per Calorie Created of Milk Compared to Meat Production. Karin Kolbe. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, August 2018, Volume 31, Issue 4, pp 467–481. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10806-018-9740-9
Abstract: Pictures of sides of beef, hanging from overhead rails in refrigerated warehouses and meat-processing plants, often leave a feeling of unease. These pictures provoke the notion that human beings have no right to inflict suffering and death on other sentient beings for the sole purpose of providing food. However, the ethical analysis conducted in this study shows that meat production, if animal welfare and deaths per calorie created are considered, is less of a pressing problem compared to the production of milk. While meat can be provided with minimal suffering to animals, the consumption of milk is always associated with considerable suffering during the dairy cow’s life-span and the lives of their offspring. Moreover, more bovine deaths per unit of calorific value created are associated with milk production compared to meat production. The vegan movement, which is currently growing, wishes to minimise farm animal suffering as much as possible. However, if a vegan diet is not possible, consumers should make an informed decision about the products they consume. Replacement of the calories obtained from meat with those from milk and dairy products is not rational if animal welfare is considered.
Abstract: Pictures of sides of beef, hanging from overhead rails in refrigerated warehouses and meat-processing plants, often leave a feeling of unease. These pictures provoke the notion that human beings have no right to inflict suffering and death on other sentient beings for the sole purpose of providing food. However, the ethical analysis conducted in this study shows that meat production, if animal welfare and deaths per calorie created are considered, is less of a pressing problem compared to the production of milk. While meat can be provided with minimal suffering to animals, the consumption of milk is always associated with considerable suffering during the dairy cow’s life-span and the lives of their offspring. Moreover, more bovine deaths per unit of calorific value created are associated with milk production compared to meat production. The vegan movement, which is currently growing, wishes to minimise farm animal suffering as much as possible. However, if a vegan diet is not possible, consumers should make an informed decision about the products they consume. Replacement of the calories obtained from meat with those from milk and dairy products is not rational if animal welfare is considered.
Spending time on social media, regardless of its purpose, relates to perceiving the United States as more politically polarized, which can help reduce polarization except in the group of those not using social media, those older than 75
Gollwitzer, Anton, Social Media Use Relates to Perceiving the United States as More Politically Polarized (March 9, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3137325
Abstract: Much research has examined the role news media and social media play in political polarization. There has been less focus on whether and how social media influences people’s perception of political polarization in society. In one study (N = 328), we examined whether increased social media use relates to perceiving the United States political climate as more or less polarized. Time spent on social media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram) related to perceiving politics as more polarized. This relationship remained when controlling for other variables such as age and political orientation. Of participants who reported using social media, whether they used it for socializing or information gathering did not relate to their level of perceived political polarization. We conclude that spending time on social media, regardless of its purpose, relates to perceiving the United States as more politically polarized. Possible mechanisms and implications of this relationship are discussed.
Keywords: perceived political polarization, social media, information gathering
Abstract: Much research has examined the role news media and social media play in political polarization. There has been less focus on whether and how social media influences people’s perception of political polarization in society. In one study (N = 328), we examined whether increased social media use relates to perceiving the United States political climate as more or less polarized. Time spent on social media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram) related to perceiving politics as more polarized. This relationship remained when controlling for other variables such as age and political orientation. Of participants who reported using social media, whether they used it for socializing or information gathering did not relate to their level of perceived political polarization. We conclude that spending time on social media, regardless of its purpose, relates to perceiving the United States as more politically polarized. Possible mechanisms and implications of this relationship are discussed.
Keywords: perceived political polarization, social media, information gathering
Subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly
Lying Through Others: Does Delegation Promote Deception? Glynis Gawn RobertInnes. Journal of Economic Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2018.08.005
Highlights
• Studies how delegation affects lie aversion.
• Controls for other economic channels by which delegation can affect deception.
• Presents classroom experiments involving black and white lies.
• Finds that subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly.
Abstract: How do agency relationships affect an individual’s willingness to lie for monetary advantage? Does lie aversion decline if a lie (or truth) is sent through an agent, rather than sent directly by the individual? In a recent paper, Erat (2013) shows that a significant proportion of his subjects prefer to delegate a deception decision. We present experiments designed to focus on one of several possible explanations for this intriguing behavior – that delegation reduces lie aversion. The experiments reveal that subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly despite controlling for potential effects of delegated decision-making on preferences over payoffs, probabilities of actions, and/or the desire to avoid taking a decision.
Highlights
• Studies how delegation affects lie aversion.
• Controls for other economic channels by which delegation can affect deception.
• Presents classroom experiments involving black and white lies.
• Finds that subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly.
Abstract: How do agency relationships affect an individual’s willingness to lie for monetary advantage? Does lie aversion decline if a lie (or truth) is sent through an agent, rather than sent directly by the individual? In a recent paper, Erat (2013) shows that a significant proportion of his subjects prefer to delegate a deception decision. We present experiments designed to focus on one of several possible explanations for this intriguing behavior – that delegation reduces lie aversion. The experiments reveal that subjects are more willing to lie through a delegate than to lie directly despite controlling for potential effects of delegated decision-making on preferences over payoffs, probabilities of actions, and/or the desire to avoid taking a decision.
Men are more likely to offer financial correct answers & women are slightly more likely to offer incorrect ones but women are considerably more likely to say "don't know," losing the opportunity to hazard a guess
On the Gender Gap in Financial Knowledge: Decomposing the Effects of Don't Know and Incorrect Responses. Zibei Chen, James C. Garand. Social Science Quarterly, https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12520
Objectives: Past studies have consistently shown that women have lower levels of financial knowledge than men, and hence there is a noticeable gender gap in financial knowledge. We reconsider the conventional measures of financial knowledge by disentangling don't know (DK) responses and incorrect answers and comparing the effect of these two disparate responses’ on the gender gap in financial knowledge.
Methods: Using data from the 2012 National Financial Capability Studies data set, we estimate a series of ordinary least squares regression and multinomial logit models of the gender gap in DK and incorrect responses.
Results: We find a strong gender gap in financial knowledge, but with a twist: (1) men are more likely to offer correct answers; (2) women are slightly more likely to offer incorrect answers; but (3) women are considerably more likely to provide DK responses. Hence women may exhibit lower levels of financial knowledge because they lose the opportunity to hazard a guess and arrive at a correct answer based either on partial knowledge or on random chance. We consider the possibility that there are psychological processes at work involving risk acceptance and confidence in financial knowledge that prompt women to give DK responses at a rate higher than men.
Conclusion: We suggest that future research should consider the relative roles of DK and incorrect responses in measuring financial knowledge.
Objectives: Past studies have consistently shown that women have lower levels of financial knowledge than men, and hence there is a noticeable gender gap in financial knowledge. We reconsider the conventional measures of financial knowledge by disentangling don't know (DK) responses and incorrect answers and comparing the effect of these two disparate responses’ on the gender gap in financial knowledge.
Methods: Using data from the 2012 National Financial Capability Studies data set, we estimate a series of ordinary least squares regression and multinomial logit models of the gender gap in DK and incorrect responses.
Results: We find a strong gender gap in financial knowledge, but with a twist: (1) men are more likely to offer correct answers; (2) women are slightly more likely to offer incorrect answers; but (3) women are considerably more likely to provide DK responses. Hence women may exhibit lower levels of financial knowledge because they lose the opportunity to hazard a guess and arrive at a correct answer based either on partial knowledge or on random chance. We consider the possibility that there are psychological processes at work involving risk acceptance and confidence in financial knowledge that prompt women to give DK responses at a rate higher than men.
Conclusion: We suggest that future research should consider the relative roles of DK and incorrect responses in measuring financial knowledge.
Traditions refer to ‘the virtuous person,’ implying that a class of individuals exists who have achieved a virtuous state; there is little evidence for class structure, & there is support for thinking of virtue as something we must pursue rather than a state that we achieve
Are there virtuous types? Finite mixture modeling of the VIA Inventory of Strengths. Dawn M. Berger & Robert E. McGrath. The Journal of Positive Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1510021
ABSTRACT: Philosophical and religious traditions often refer to ‘the virtuous person.’ This terminology usually carries with it the assumption that a class of individuals exists who have achieved a virtuous state. This study attempted to test that implication. The VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) is intended as a comprehensive assessment of character strengths, which are conceptualized as markers of virtuous character. One prior study using taxometric methods found no evidence for the existence of such a category of individuals using VIA-IS scores. Subsequent literature has suggested the superiority of finite mixture modeling for identifying categorical structure. Latent profile analyses of 1–10 classes were conducted in a stratified sample of 10,000 adults. The results provided little evidence for class structure, and support thinking of virtue as something we must continuously pursue rather than a state that we achieve.
KEYWORDS: Character strengths, virtue, latent profile analysis (LPA), finite mixture modeling (FMM)
ABSTRACT: Philosophical and religious traditions often refer to ‘the virtuous person.’ This terminology usually carries with it the assumption that a class of individuals exists who have achieved a virtuous state. This study attempted to test that implication. The VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) is intended as a comprehensive assessment of character strengths, which are conceptualized as markers of virtuous character. One prior study using taxometric methods found no evidence for the existence of such a category of individuals using VIA-IS scores. Subsequent literature has suggested the superiority of finite mixture modeling for identifying categorical structure. Latent profile analyses of 1–10 classes were conducted in a stratified sample of 10,000 adults. The results provided little evidence for class structure, and support thinking of virtue as something we must continuously pursue rather than a state that we achieve.
KEYWORDS: Character strengths, virtue, latent profile analysis (LPA), finite mixture modeling (FMM)
Tuesday, August 28, 2018
Economic well-being in rural India is clearly increasing across castes; the highest castes are happier than the others; the happiness pattern across the low & middle castes is flat or even downward sloping, which we attribute to the dynamics of downward & upward comparisons
The relationship between status and happiness: Evidence from the caste system in rural India. Bert Van Landeghem, Anneleen Vandeplas. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2018.08.006
Highlights
• In both regions under study, we find that economic well-being in rural India is clearly increasing across castes.
• We also find that the highest castes are happier than the lower and middle castes.
• The happiness pattern across the low and middle castes is either flat or even downward sloping, which we attribute to the dynamics of downward and upward comparisons.
Abstract: A large number of empirical studies have investigated the link between social status and happiness; however, in observational data, identification challenges remain severe. This study exploits the fact that, in India, people are assigned a caste from birth. Two similar surveys of household heads (each with N=1000) in rural Punjab and Andhra Pradesh show an increasing pattern of economic welfare with caste hierarchy. This illustrates that, in the rural regions under study, one’s caste is still an important determinant of opportunities in life. Subsequently, we find that the castes at the top are clearly more satisfied than the lower and middle castes. This result, which is in line with the predictions of all major social comparison theories, is robust across the two case studies. The pattern across low and middle castes, however, is less clear, reflecting the complex theoretical relationship between being of middle rank, on the one hand, and behaviour, aspirations, and well-being, on the other hand. In the Punjab sample, we even find a significant U-shaped pattern, with the middle castes being the least happy. Interestingly, these patterns resemble those found for Olympic medallists (first documented by Medvec et al., 1995).
Highlights
• In both regions under study, we find that economic well-being in rural India is clearly increasing across castes.
• We also find that the highest castes are happier than the lower and middle castes.
• The happiness pattern across the low and middle castes is either flat or even downward sloping, which we attribute to the dynamics of downward and upward comparisons.
Abstract: A large number of empirical studies have investigated the link between social status and happiness; however, in observational data, identification challenges remain severe. This study exploits the fact that, in India, people are assigned a caste from birth. Two similar surveys of household heads (each with N=1000) in rural Punjab and Andhra Pradesh show an increasing pattern of economic welfare with caste hierarchy. This illustrates that, in the rural regions under study, one’s caste is still an important determinant of opportunities in life. Subsequently, we find that the castes at the top are clearly more satisfied than the lower and middle castes. This result, which is in line with the predictions of all major social comparison theories, is robust across the two case studies. The pattern across low and middle castes, however, is less clear, reflecting the complex theoretical relationship between being of middle rank, on the one hand, and behaviour, aspirations, and well-being, on the other hand. In the Punjab sample, we even find a significant U-shaped pattern, with the middle castes being the least happy. Interestingly, these patterns resemble those found for Olympic medallists (first documented by Medvec et al., 1995).
Autodidactism: We are likelier to grow cranky and conspiracy-minded, mistaking brainstorms for insight while rediscovering what the rest of the world already know
'We Can Read Without Learning at All'.“ Patrick Kurp. Sunday Aug 26 2018.
evidenceanecdotal.blogspot.com/2018/08/we-can-read-without-learning-at-all.html
What we mean by ‘education,’ that strange word, still has mostly to do with books, books we possess, keep.”
[...]
The obvious risk involved in adhering strictly to autodidacticism is waywardness. We require the friction of other minds to buff away self-generated roughness. Few of us can polish ourselves. We are likelier to grow cranky and conspiracy-minded, mistaking brainstorms for insight while rediscovering what the rest of the world already knows. Had I read only the books assigned in class, I would today be only nominally literate. Had I read only the books that confirmed the thoughts I already possessed, I would remain marginally illiterate.
[...]
Fr. Schall reminds us of the thrills and risks of self-education: “We can read without learning at all. We can have read only one book, the Bible or Shakespeare, but read it well. We can read many things, none of which move our souls to attend to what is.”
---
The Autodidact Project, by Ralph Dumain: www.autodidactproject.org
evidenceanecdotal.blogspot.com/2018/08/we-can-read-without-learning-at-all.html
What we mean by ‘education,’ that strange word, still has mostly to do with books, books we possess, keep.”
[...]
The obvious risk involved in adhering strictly to autodidacticism is waywardness. We require the friction of other minds to buff away self-generated roughness. Few of us can polish ourselves. We are likelier to grow cranky and conspiracy-minded, mistaking brainstorms for insight while rediscovering what the rest of the world already knows. Had I read only the books assigned in class, I would today be only nominally literate. Had I read only the books that confirmed the thoughts I already possessed, I would remain marginally illiterate.
[...]
Fr. Schall reminds us of the thrills and risks of self-education: “We can read without learning at all. We can have read only one book, the Bible or Shakespeare, but read it well. We can read many things, none of which move our souls to attend to what is.”
---
The Autodidact Project, by Ralph Dumain: www.autodidactproject.org
Children reproduced outcomes that were positively valued by the experimenter significantly more when he was attentive but were more likely to reproduce negatively valued outcomes when he was inattentive
Botto, Sara Valencia, & Rochat, Philippe. (2018). Sensitivity to the evaluation of others emerges by 24 months. Developmental Psychology, 54(9), 1723-1734. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0000548
Abstract: Although the human proclivity to engage in impression management and care for reputation is ubiquitous, the question of its developmental outset remains open. In 4 studies, we demonstrate that the sensitivity to the evaluation of others (i.e., evaluative audience perception) is manifest by 24 months. In a first study, 14- to 24-month-old children (N = 49) were tested in situations in which the attention of an audience was systematically manipulated. Results showed that when the experimenter was inattentive, as opposed to attentive, children were more likely to explore an attractive toy. A second study (N = 31) explored whether same-aged children would consider not only the attention of the experimenter but also the values the experimenter expressed for two different outcomes when exploring a toy. We found that children reproduced outcomes that were positively valued by the experimenter significantly more when the experimenter was attentive but were more likely to reproduce negatively valued outcomes when the experimenter was inattentive. A third control study (N = 30) showed that the significant effect of Study 2 disappeared in the absence of different values. Lastly, Study 4 (N = 34) replicated and extended the phenomenon by showing toddler’s propensity to modify their behavior in the presence of 2 different experimenters, depending on both the experimenter’s evaluation of an outcome and their attention. Overall, these data provide the first convergent demonstration of evaluative audience perception in young children that precedes the full-fledged normative, mentalizing, and strong conformity psychology documented in 4- to 5-year-old children.
Abstract: Although the human proclivity to engage in impression management and care for reputation is ubiquitous, the question of its developmental outset remains open. In 4 studies, we demonstrate that the sensitivity to the evaluation of others (i.e., evaluative audience perception) is manifest by 24 months. In a first study, 14- to 24-month-old children (N = 49) were tested in situations in which the attention of an audience was systematically manipulated. Results showed that when the experimenter was inattentive, as opposed to attentive, children were more likely to explore an attractive toy. A second study (N = 31) explored whether same-aged children would consider not only the attention of the experimenter but also the values the experimenter expressed for two different outcomes when exploring a toy. We found that children reproduced outcomes that were positively valued by the experimenter significantly more when the experimenter was attentive but were more likely to reproduce negatively valued outcomes when the experimenter was inattentive. A third control study (N = 30) showed that the significant effect of Study 2 disappeared in the absence of different values. Lastly, Study 4 (N = 34) replicated and extended the phenomenon by showing toddler’s propensity to modify their behavior in the presence of 2 different experimenters, depending on both the experimenter’s evaluation of an outcome and their attention. Overall, these data provide the first convergent demonstration of evaluative audience perception in young children that precedes the full-fledged normative, mentalizing, and strong conformity psychology documented in 4- to 5-year-old children.
People reported as less likable, relatable, appealing, and more troublesome female Dark Triad characters, than non-Dark Triad & male characters; Non-Dark Triad males were viewed as more troublesome than non-Dark Triad females
Snyder, G. K., Smith, C. V., Øverup, C. S., Paul, A. L., & Davis, T. M. (2018). Characters we love to hate: Perceptions of dark triad characters in media. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000200
Abstract: Although the Dark Triad personality (narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism) has extensive background research, there has been a lack of investigation into perceptions of people high in the Dark Triad. Using film trailers with prominent Dark Triad characters, the current research examined perceptions of characters in movies and TV shows based on their Dark Triad characteristics and their gender. Undergraduate students (pilot study N = 21; present study N = 86) watched theatrical trailers originally released by the production companies before they rated 2 key characters’ Dark Triad traits with the Dirty Dozen (Jonason & Webster, 2010). Analyses revealed significant interactions such that people reported less positive perceptions (e.g., less likable, relatable, appealing, and more troublesome) of female Dark Triad characters, as opposed to non-Dark Triad characters and male characters. Non-Dark Triad male characters were viewed as more troublesome than non-Dark Triad female characters, and female Dark Triad characters were viewed as the most troublesome. Possible extensions could explore the prevalence and popularity of Dark Triad-type characters in the media and how genders in media have changed over time.
Abstract: Although the Dark Triad personality (narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism) has extensive background research, there has been a lack of investigation into perceptions of people high in the Dark Triad. Using film trailers with prominent Dark Triad characters, the current research examined perceptions of characters in movies and TV shows based on their Dark Triad characteristics and their gender. Undergraduate students (pilot study N = 21; present study N = 86) watched theatrical trailers originally released by the production companies before they rated 2 key characters’ Dark Triad traits with the Dirty Dozen (Jonason & Webster, 2010). Analyses revealed significant interactions such that people reported less positive perceptions (e.g., less likable, relatable, appealing, and more troublesome) of female Dark Triad characters, as opposed to non-Dark Triad characters and male characters. Non-Dark Triad male characters were viewed as more troublesome than non-Dark Triad female characters, and female Dark Triad characters were viewed as the most troublesome. Possible extensions could explore the prevalence and popularity of Dark Triad-type characters in the media and how genders in media have changed over time.
Young women taking and posting “selfies” online: Posting selfies on social media resulted in worsened mood and body image; even posting retouched selfies resulted in harmful effects
“Selfie” harm: Effects on mood and body image in young women. Jennifer S. Mills et al. Body Image, Volume 27, December 2018, Pages 86-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.007
Highlights
• We examined the behaviour of taking and posting “selfies” online.
• The current study used an experimental design.
• Posting selfies on social media resulted in worsened mood and body image.
• Even posting retouched selfies resulted in harmful effects.
Abstract: “Selfies” (self-taken photos) are a common self-presentation strategy on social media. This study experimentally tested whether taking and posting selfies, with and without photo-retouching, elicits changes to mood and body image among young women. Female undergraduate students (N = 110) were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: taking and uploading either an untouched selfie, taking and posting a preferred and retouched selfie to social media, or a control group. State mood and body image were measured pre- and post-manipulation. As predicted, there was a main effect of experimental condition on changes to mood and feelings of physical attractiveness. Women who took and posted selfies to social media reported feeling more anxious, less confident, and less physically attractive afterwards compared to those in the control group. Harmful effects of selfies were found even when participants could retake and retouch their selfies. This is the first experimental study showing that taking and posting selfies on social media causes adverse psychological effects for women.
Highlights
• We examined the behaviour of taking and posting “selfies” online.
• The current study used an experimental design.
• Posting selfies on social media resulted in worsened mood and body image.
• Even posting retouched selfies resulted in harmful effects.
Abstract: “Selfies” (self-taken photos) are a common self-presentation strategy on social media. This study experimentally tested whether taking and posting selfies, with and without photo-retouching, elicits changes to mood and body image among young women. Female undergraduate students (N = 110) were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: taking and uploading either an untouched selfie, taking and posting a preferred and retouched selfie to social media, or a control group. State mood and body image were measured pre- and post-manipulation. As predicted, there was a main effect of experimental condition on changes to mood and feelings of physical attractiveness. Women who took and posted selfies to social media reported feeling more anxious, less confident, and less physically attractive afterwards compared to those in the control group. Harmful effects of selfies were found even when participants could retake and retouch their selfies. This is the first experimental study showing that taking and posting selfies on social media causes adverse psychological effects for women.
Adopting a Stigmatized Label: Social Determinants of Identifying as an Atheist beyond Disbelief
Adopting a Stigmatized Label: Social Determinants of Identifying as an Atheist beyond Disbelief. Christopher P Scheitle, Katie E Corcoran, Erin B Hudnall. Social Forces, Social Forces, soy084, https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy084
Abstract: An individual’s identity may not appear to correspond to his or her beliefs and behaviors. Such incongruence may be particularly likely when an identity is stigmatized. We examine this dynamic in the context of atheists. Being an atheist has often been equated with stating a disbelief in God, but this ignores the distinct phenomenon of identifying as an atheist. This study asks what influences the likelihood that an individual will identify as an atheist beyond saying that he or she does not believe in God. Drawing upon research examining the social dynamics of stigma and identity, we hypothesize that having close friends who are atheists will support an individual’s own adoption of the atheist label. On the other hand, we hypothesize that the presence of other stigmatized or at least competing identities, beliefs, and behaviors will serve as a barrier to an individual’s adoption of the atheist label. These expectations are largely supported in an analysis of unique survey data offering separate measures of atheist self-identification and belief in God. This study provides a framework for future research to examine these dynamics in the context of other identities, particularly those that are stigmatized.
Abstract: An individual’s identity may not appear to correspond to his or her beliefs and behaviors. Such incongruence may be particularly likely when an identity is stigmatized. We examine this dynamic in the context of atheists. Being an atheist has often been equated with stating a disbelief in God, but this ignores the distinct phenomenon of identifying as an atheist. This study asks what influences the likelihood that an individual will identify as an atheist beyond saying that he or she does not believe in God. Drawing upon research examining the social dynamics of stigma and identity, we hypothesize that having close friends who are atheists will support an individual’s own adoption of the atheist label. On the other hand, we hypothesize that the presence of other stigmatized or at least competing identities, beliefs, and behaviors will serve as a barrier to an individual’s adoption of the atheist label. These expectations are largely supported in an analysis of unique survey data offering separate measures of atheist self-identification and belief in God. This study provides a framework for future research to examine these dynamics in the context of other identities, particularly those that are stigmatized.
Monday, August 27, 2018
Old, from 2017: Hallmarks of Alzheimer’s Disease in Stem-Cell-Derived Human Neurons Transplanted into Mouse Brain
Old, from 2017: Hallmarks of Alzheimer’s Disease in Stem-Cell-Derived Human Neurons Transplanted into Mouse Brain. Ira Espuny-Camacho et al. Neuron, Volume 93, ISSUE 5, P1066-1081.e8 DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.02.001
Highlights
Human-mouse chimeric model of Alzheimer’s disease
PSC-derived human neurons grafted into an AD mouse
Major degeneration and loss of human neurons in chimeric AD mice
Absence of tangle pathology in degenerating human neurons in vivo
Summary: Human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) provide a unique entry to study species-specific aspects of human disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, in vitro culture of neurons deprives them of their natural environment. Here we transplanted human PSC-derived cortical neuronal precursors into the brain of a murine AD model. Human neurons differentiate and integrate into the brain, express 3R/4R Tau splice forms, show abnormal phosphorylation and conformational Tau changes, and undergo neurodegeneration. Remarkably, cell death was dissociated from tangle formation in this natural 3D model of AD. Using genome-wide expression analysis, we observed upregulation of genes involved in myelination and downregulation of genes related to memory and cognition, synaptic transmission, and neuron projection. This novel chimeric model for AD displays human-specific pathological features and allows the analysis of different genetic backgrounds and mutations during the course of the disease.
Highlights
Human-mouse chimeric model of Alzheimer’s disease
PSC-derived human neurons grafted into an AD mouse
Major degeneration and loss of human neurons in chimeric AD mice
Absence of tangle pathology in degenerating human neurons in vivo
Summary: Human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) provide a unique entry to study species-specific aspects of human disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, in vitro culture of neurons deprives them of their natural environment. Here we transplanted human PSC-derived cortical neuronal precursors into the brain of a murine AD model. Human neurons differentiate and integrate into the brain, express 3R/4R Tau splice forms, show abnormal phosphorylation and conformational Tau changes, and undergo neurodegeneration. Remarkably, cell death was dissociated from tangle formation in this natural 3D model of AD. Using genome-wide expression analysis, we observed upregulation of genes involved in myelination and downregulation of genes related to memory and cognition, synaptic transmission, and neuron projection. This novel chimeric model for AD displays human-specific pathological features and allows the analysis of different genetic backgrounds and mutations during the course of the disease.
Until more compelling evidence emerges, however, a propensity to imitate from birth should no longer be considered an established phenomenon
Re-evaluating the neonatal imitation hypothesis. Janine Oostenbroek et al. Developmental Science, DOI: 10.1111/desc.12720
We appreciate Meltzoff et al.’s (2017) detailed commentary on our study of neonatal imitation (Oostenbroek et al., 2016) and the opportunity to clarify critical aspects of the findings. First, however, we wish to highlight that our data were collected as part of a larger longitudinal investigation, in which we set out to examine potential relations between neonatal imitation and later emerging aspects of social cognition (Suddendorf, Oostenbroek, Nielsen, & Slaughter, 2013). Our aim was not to test the veracity of the phenomenon of neonatal imitation, but to assess whether early individual differences predict later imitative and other socio-cognitive capacities, which would support the view of neonatal imitation as the foundation of social cognition (Meltzoff, 2002). When coding was finalized, it became clear that, to our surprise, the data challenged the very existence of the phenomenon whose trajectory and consequences we sought to chart.
Meltzoff et al. (2017) claim that methodological problems biased our results towards null effects. We assert that there is no compelling reason to think that any of these critiques undermine our challenge to the field. For instance, they argue that too many stimuli were used in a within-subjects design, which may have led to neonatal fatigue and disengagement. If that were the case, however, then initial trials should have elicited imitation but not later ones. We found no such order effects in any of our analyses (see Supplementary Material in Oostenbroek et al., 2016). Meltzoff et al. rightly note that infants cannot be expected to imitate behaviors that they are incapable of producing. Our data show, however, that with the exception of the ‘eee’ vocalizations and sad faces, infants produced all target behaviors either occasionally or regularly. [...]
The literature on neonatal imitation has a long history of post-hoc theorizing. In response to early failures to replicate the effect, for example, it was stipulated that neonates should be unfamiliar with the model’s face to maintain interest during the experiment (Meltzoff & Moore, 1983a). Later, however, it was argued that infants imitate familiar faces to communicate recognition (Meltzoff, 2005; Meltzoff & Moore, 1994), and that ‘imitation is not modified by which person serves as the model’ (Meltzoff & Moore, 1992, p. 492). Now, Meltzoff et al. again argue that the model should be unfamiliar, even suggesting that this is the ‘key’ to eliciting neonatal imitation. Setting aside the obvious contradictions here, it seems untenable to claim that the ‘engine and mechanism for the growth of social cognition’ (Meltzoff, 2002, p. 7) would manifest itself only with unfamiliar people.
We appreciate Meltzoff et al.’s (2017) detailed commentary on our study of neonatal imitation (Oostenbroek et al., 2016) and the opportunity to clarify critical aspects of the findings. First, however, we wish to highlight that our data were collected as part of a larger longitudinal investigation, in which we set out to examine potential relations between neonatal imitation and later emerging aspects of social cognition (Suddendorf, Oostenbroek, Nielsen, & Slaughter, 2013). Our aim was not to test the veracity of the phenomenon of neonatal imitation, but to assess whether early individual differences predict later imitative and other socio-cognitive capacities, which would support the view of neonatal imitation as the foundation of social cognition (Meltzoff, 2002). When coding was finalized, it became clear that, to our surprise, the data challenged the very existence of the phenomenon whose trajectory and consequences we sought to chart.
Meltzoff et al. (2017) claim that methodological problems biased our results towards null effects. We assert that there is no compelling reason to think that any of these critiques undermine our challenge to the field. For instance, they argue that too many stimuli were used in a within-subjects design, which may have led to neonatal fatigue and disengagement. If that were the case, however, then initial trials should have elicited imitation but not later ones. We found no such order effects in any of our analyses (see Supplementary Material in Oostenbroek et al., 2016). Meltzoff et al. rightly note that infants cannot be expected to imitate behaviors that they are incapable of producing. Our data show, however, that with the exception of the ‘eee’ vocalizations and sad faces, infants produced all target behaviors either occasionally or regularly. [...]
The literature on neonatal imitation has a long history of post-hoc theorizing. In response to early failures to replicate the effect, for example, it was stipulated that neonates should be unfamiliar with the model’s face to maintain interest during the experiment (Meltzoff & Moore, 1983a). Later, however, it was argued that infants imitate familiar faces to communicate recognition (Meltzoff, 2005; Meltzoff & Moore, 1994), and that ‘imitation is not modified by which person serves as the model’ (Meltzoff & Moore, 1992, p. 492). Now, Meltzoff et al. again argue that the model should be unfamiliar, even suggesting that this is the ‘key’ to eliciting neonatal imitation. Setting aside the obvious contradictions here, it seems untenable to claim that the ‘engine and mechanism for the growth of social cognition’ (Meltzoff, 2002, p. 7) would manifest itself only with unfamiliar people.
Individuals with stronger social anxiety perceive their environment as hierarchically organized & their own position relatively low; positive evaluations might mean problems, so a goal could be protection by avoiding making “too good” of an impression
Malaise with praise: A narrative review of 10 years of research on the concept of Fear of Positive Evaluation in social anxiety. Julia Reichenberger, Jens Blechert. Depression and Anxiety, https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22808
Abstract: Social anxiety is characterized by a fear of being negatively evaluated by others (i.e., Fear of Negative Evaluation [FNE]). In 2008, Weeks, Heimberg, and Rodebaugh proposed Fear of Positive Evaluation (FPE) as a second cognitive component in social anxiety. The article presents an overview of FPE, its psycho‐evolutionary theoretical foundation and assessment by the Fear of Positive Evaluation Scale as well as relevant psychometric research on demographic characteristics. The relationship of FPE with a wide range of established dimensions from clinical, personality, and social psychology (i.e., self‐esteem, perfectionism, or quality of life) will be reviewed. The role of FPE for psychological comorbidities such as other anxiety disorders, depression, eating, and substance use disorders as well as for treatment of social anxiety will be discussed. Future research might address questions of causality of FPE relative to related constructs, further data on psychometric properties, as well as on its independence from FNE in longitudinal studies. In sum, FPE seems to be a valid and reliable construct that explains cognitions, emotions, and behavior related to social anxiety at subclinical and clinical levels and therefore enriches the psychometric repertoire in the fields of social psychology, personality, and clinical psychology.
---
A theoretical framework for FPE stems from the psycho-evolutionary model of social anxiety by Gilbert (2001, 2014) and was adapted by Weeks et al. (2008a). Accordingly, individuals with stronger social anxiety perceive their environment as hierarchically organized, and see their own position in the hierarchy as relatively low. Their ultimate goal is supposedly a stable, intermediate position and an avoidance of upward or downward shifts in the social hierarchy. This “inconspicuous” intermediate position is the result of two “regulatory forces”, FNE and FPE (see Figure 1). Specifically, the upward movements in the social hierarchy, implied in positive evaluation, might attract the group's attention, prompting higher-ranking group members to compete and challenge this new “rising star.” Hence, the goal of FPE could be protection from this threat by avoiding making “too good” of an impression, thereby avoiding an upward shift in social hierarchy.
Abstract: Social anxiety is characterized by a fear of being negatively evaluated by others (i.e., Fear of Negative Evaluation [FNE]). In 2008, Weeks, Heimberg, and Rodebaugh proposed Fear of Positive Evaluation (FPE) as a second cognitive component in social anxiety. The article presents an overview of FPE, its psycho‐evolutionary theoretical foundation and assessment by the Fear of Positive Evaluation Scale as well as relevant psychometric research on demographic characteristics. The relationship of FPE with a wide range of established dimensions from clinical, personality, and social psychology (i.e., self‐esteem, perfectionism, or quality of life) will be reviewed. The role of FPE for psychological comorbidities such as other anxiety disorders, depression, eating, and substance use disorders as well as for treatment of social anxiety will be discussed. Future research might address questions of causality of FPE relative to related constructs, further data on psychometric properties, as well as on its independence from FNE in longitudinal studies. In sum, FPE seems to be a valid and reliable construct that explains cognitions, emotions, and behavior related to social anxiety at subclinical and clinical levels and therefore enriches the psychometric repertoire in the fields of social psychology, personality, and clinical psychology.
---
A theoretical framework for FPE stems from the psycho-evolutionary model of social anxiety by Gilbert (2001, 2014) and was adapted by Weeks et al. (2008a). Accordingly, individuals with stronger social anxiety perceive their environment as hierarchically organized, and see their own position in the hierarchy as relatively low. Their ultimate goal is supposedly a stable, intermediate position and an avoidance of upward or downward shifts in the social hierarchy. This “inconspicuous” intermediate position is the result of two “regulatory forces”, FNE and FPE (see Figure 1). Specifically, the upward movements in the social hierarchy, implied in positive evaluation, might attract the group's attention, prompting higher-ranking group members to compete and challenge this new “rising star.” Hence, the goal of FPE could be protection from this threat by avoiding making “too good” of an impression, thereby avoiding an upward shift in social hierarchy.
Pink for Girls, Red for Boys, and Blue for Both Genders: Colour Preferences in Children and Adults
Pink for Girls, Red for Boys, and Blue for Both Genders: Colour Preferences in Children and Adults, Domicele Jonauskaite et al. Sex Roles, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-018-0955-z
Abstract: Colours carry social connotations like pink for girls and blue for boys. In a cross-sectional study, we investigated whether such early gender coding might be reflected in absolute colour preferences in children and adults of both genders. In two studies, participants selected their favourite (and least favourite, Study 2) colour from an unrestricted sample of colours. We tested 129 Swiss children (Study 1, 10–14 years-old, 68 boys) and 180 Swiss adults (Study 2, 17–48 years-old, 88 men). In children, we observed that girls chose pink/purple as their favourite hue more often than boys did, the most common favourite hue in girls and boys was blue, and boys chose red as their favourite more often than girls did. In adults, we observed that both genders almost never choose pink as their favourite, blue was a common favourite colour, and women were more likely to favour red than were men. In an additional study (n = 183 Swiss participants, 47 men), we tested whether liking of pink, blue, and red was related to emotion associations with these colours. Pink was associated with positive emotions to the same extent as blue and red. Women further associated more positive emotions with pink than did men. We conclude that some commonalities (blue) and gender differences (pink and red) exist in absolute colour preferences. These differences, however, cannot be fully accounted by emotional associations. We speculate about these gendered colour preferences in relation to gender stereotypes and status differences between men and women.
Abstract: Colours carry social connotations like pink for girls and blue for boys. In a cross-sectional study, we investigated whether such early gender coding might be reflected in absolute colour preferences in children and adults of both genders. In two studies, participants selected their favourite (and least favourite, Study 2) colour from an unrestricted sample of colours. We tested 129 Swiss children (Study 1, 10–14 years-old, 68 boys) and 180 Swiss adults (Study 2, 17–48 years-old, 88 men). In children, we observed that girls chose pink/purple as their favourite hue more often than boys did, the most common favourite hue in girls and boys was blue, and boys chose red as their favourite more often than girls did. In adults, we observed that both genders almost never choose pink as their favourite, blue was a common favourite colour, and women were more likely to favour red than were men. In an additional study (n = 183 Swiss participants, 47 men), we tested whether liking of pink, blue, and red was related to emotion associations with these colours. Pink was associated with positive emotions to the same extent as blue and red. Women further associated more positive emotions with pink than did men. We conclude that some commonalities (blue) and gender differences (pink and red) exist in absolute colour preferences. These differences, however, cannot be fully accounted by emotional associations. We speculate about these gendered colour preferences in relation to gender stereotypes and status differences between men and women.
American adolescents positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, & hazardous driving; possible causes are the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, & the social consequences of electronic media use
Arnett, J. J. (2018). Getting better all the time: Trends in risk behavior among American adolescents since 1990. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 6(1), 87-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/arc0000046
Abstract: Contrary to the negative narrative in psychology and in the American public, many trends in the risk behaviors of American adolescents have been positive in recent decades. Evidence is presented for positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, and hazardous automobile driving. A comparison of American adolescents to older Americans and to adolescents in other developed countries indicates that the pattern of positive trends is distinct to young Americans and does not apply consistently across age groups and countries. Three explanations for the positive trends are considered: the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, and the social consequences of electronic media use. The most promising hypothesis is that a rise in electronic media use led to a decline in unstructured socializing, which led in turn to lower risk behavior.
Impact Statement: Contrary to the negative narrative in psychology and in the American public, many trends in the risk behaviors of American adolescents have been positive in recent decades. Evidence is presented for positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, and hazardous automobile driving. A comparison of American adolescents to older Americans and to adolescents in other developed countries indicates that the pattern of positive trends is distinct to young Americans and does not apply consistently across age groups and countries. Three explanations for the positive trends are considered: the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, and the social consequences of electronic media use. The most promising hypothesis is that a rise in electronic media use led to a decline in unstructured socializing, which led in turn to lower risk behavior.
Abstract: Contrary to the negative narrative in psychology and in the American public, many trends in the risk behaviors of American adolescents have been positive in recent decades. Evidence is presented for positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, and hazardous automobile driving. A comparison of American adolescents to older Americans and to adolescents in other developed countries indicates that the pattern of positive trends is distinct to young Americans and does not apply consistently across age groups and countries. Three explanations for the positive trends are considered: the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, and the social consequences of electronic media use. The most promising hypothesis is that a rise in electronic media use led to a decline in unstructured socializing, which led in turn to lower risk behavior.
Impact Statement: Contrary to the negative narrative in psychology and in the American public, many trends in the risk behaviors of American adolescents have been positive in recent decades. Evidence is presented for positive trends in four areas: substance use, unprotected sex, crime, and hazardous automobile driving. A comparison of American adolescents to older Americans and to adolescents in other developed countries indicates that the pattern of positive trends is distinct to young Americans and does not apply consistently across age groups and countries. Three explanations for the positive trends are considered: the effects of public policies, closer parent–child relationships, and the social consequences of electronic media use. The most promising hypothesis is that a rise in electronic media use led to a decline in unstructured socializing, which led in turn to lower risk behavior.
Saturday, August 25, 2018
Milgram replication: In conditions where the participants were not given money up front it was necessary to employ more verbal prompts in order to induce obedience
The (doubtful) role of financial reward in obedience to authority. Dariusz Dolinski & Tomasz Grzyb. The Journal of Social Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2018.1505708
ABSTRACT: The Milgram experiments are among the most well-known and important in the history of psychology. Since first published, there have been countless discussions held on the subject of what factors induce people to exhibit extreme obedience towards authority. One such potential factor, not yet explored empirically, is the receipt in advance of financial gratification by a study participant. In our experiment we compare obedience among participants in classic Milgram paradigm conditions with obedience in a situation where the participant does not receive financial gratification in advance. The results did not show that obedience differed in the two comparable situations. In conditions where the participants were not given money up front, however, it was necessary to employ more verbal prompts in order to induce obedience.
Keywords: Obedience, financial gratification, reciprocity
ABSTRACT: The Milgram experiments are among the most well-known and important in the history of psychology. Since first published, there have been countless discussions held on the subject of what factors induce people to exhibit extreme obedience towards authority. One such potential factor, not yet explored empirically, is the receipt in advance of financial gratification by a study participant. In our experiment we compare obedience among participants in classic Milgram paradigm conditions with obedience in a situation where the participant does not receive financial gratification in advance. The results did not show that obedience differed in the two comparable situations. In conditions where the participants were not given money up front, however, it was necessary to employ more verbal prompts in order to induce obedience.
Keywords: Obedience, financial gratification, reciprocity
Women are usually somewhat earlier chronotypes, who go to bed earlier, fall asleep earlier, and then get up a little earlier; this difference arises with puberty and ends with menopause, from which a reproductive function can be interpreted
The chronotype in relationships and sexual behavior - a first overview (automatic translation of Der Chronotyp in Beziehungen und Sexualverhalten – eine erste Übersicht). Christoph Randler. Somnologie, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11818-018-0176-2
Abstract: A late chronotype (owls) is someone who tends to go to bed late, so he or she will get up later. In contrast, morning types (larks) get up earlier and go to bed earlier. Men and women differ in their chronotype. Women are usually somewhat earlier chronotypes, who go to bed earlier, fall asleep earlier, and then get up a little earlier. Interestingly, this difference arises with puberty and ends with menopause, from which a reproductive function can be interpreted. From an evolutionary Darwinian perspective, this is a sexual dimorphism that can be explained by sexual selection. Various studies have indeed shown that men of the evening type reported more sexual partners, in Italy, Sri Lanka and Germany. Furthermore, studies show that assortative behaviour takes place when choosing a partner, i. e. there are more couples whose partners are similar the chronotype. However, there are still many open questions related to this topic.
Abstract: A late chronotype (owls) is someone who tends to go to bed late, so he or she will get up later. In contrast, morning types (larks) get up earlier and go to bed earlier. Men and women differ in their chronotype. Women are usually somewhat earlier chronotypes, who go to bed earlier, fall asleep earlier, and then get up a little earlier. Interestingly, this difference arises with puberty and ends with menopause, from which a reproductive function can be interpreted. From an evolutionary Darwinian perspective, this is a sexual dimorphism that can be explained by sexual selection. Various studies have indeed shown that men of the evening type reported more sexual partners, in Italy, Sri Lanka and Germany. Furthermore, studies show that assortative behaviour takes place when choosing a partner, i. e. there are more couples whose partners are similar the chronotype. However, there are still many open questions related to this topic.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
Posts
