Do We Know What We Enjoy? Accuracy of Forecasted Eating Happiness

Do We Know What We Enjoy? Accuracy of Forecasted Eating Happiness. Karoline Villinger et al. Front. Psychol., June 17 2020. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01187

Abstract: Forecasting how we will react in the future is important in every area of our lives. However, people often demonstrate an “impact bias” which leads them to inaccurately forecast their affective reactions to distinct and outstanding future events. The present study examined forecasting accuracy for a day-to-day repetitive experience for which people have a wealth of past experiences (eating happiness), along with dispositional expectations toward eating (“foodiness”). Seventy-three participants (67.12% women, M age = 41.85 years) used a smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment to assess their food intake and eating happiness over 14 days. Eating happiness experienced in-the-moment showed considerable inter-and intra-individual variation, ICC = 0.47. Comparing forecasted and in-the-moment eating happiness revealed a significant discrepancy whose magnitude was affected by dispositional expectations and the variability of the experience. The results demonstrate that biased forecasts are a general phenomenon prevalent both in outstanding and well-known experiences, while also emphasizing the importance of inter-individual differences for a detailed understanding of affective forecasting.

Discussion

The present study investigated forecasting accuracy for a familiar day-to-day experience, comparing forecasted eating happiness with eating happiness experienced in-the-moment using an event-based ecological momentary assessment. A significant difference between forecasted and in-the-moment eating happiness was observed. This shows that people’s forecasted emotional reactions for both distinct, outstanding events and familiar day-to-day experiences are inaccurate. Furthermore, the magnitude of the discrepancy was affected by both dispositional expectations (“foodiness”) and the variability of the in-the-moment experience, demonstrating that both stable inter-individual differences and experience-specific aspects influence forecasting accuracy.

Interestingly, while the relative difference score between forecasted and in-the-moment experience did not reveal an impact bias in the present study, the analysis of the absolute difference demonstrated a large effect for the divergence between forecasted and in-the-moment experience across participants (d = 1.81). The tendency to mispredict the intensity and/or duration of an emotional event has usually been described as an overestimation of the emotional impact, such as overestimating the pleasure of a vacation or the disappointment of a romantic breakup (see e.g., Gilbert et al., 1998; Wirtz et al., 2003). However, data from the present study revealed a substantial number of both overestimations and underestimations of in-the-moment eating happiness, explaining why the relative difference score did not reveal an impact bias across participants. One reason for this mixed forecasting pattern in this study might be the nature of the forecasted event. While distinct and outstanding events such as vacations or romantic breakups typically have uniformly positive or negative connotations across individuals, eating happiness is characterized by a greater inter- and intra-individual variance, meaning that eating experiences can vary both in their valence and in their intensity across as well as within individuals. General mechanisms such as focusing on central aspects (Wilson et al., 2000) or underestimating adaption over time (Gilbert et al., 1998) can provide an explanation for the absolute error, but the absolute error can be both to the positive and negative. The present study revealed an effect which is substantially higher than previously reported, for example, by Wirtz et al. (2003) with d > 0.61 from examining students’ real-life vacation experiences. However, the observed effect size is comparable to effect sizes in studies which also analyzed the absolute value of the discrepancy. For example, Hoerger et al. (2012a) found a significant discrepancy with an effect of d = 2.84 when comparing forecasted and in-the-moment experiences related to emotion-evoking pictures. This suggests that, examining an experience with no uniform connotation across individuals, the relative difference might reveal no impact bias across individuals not because people are able to provide accurate forecasts, but due to the prevalence of both overestimations and underestimations in forecasted reactions.

Further, day-to-day experiences are characterized by high familiarity and repetition, both possibly impacting the magnitude of the impact bias. The present data suggest that familiarity of the experience such as having previous experiences of an event or an emotional reaction does not necessarily improve forecasting accuracy. To learn from their emotional experiences, people must actively refer to and integrate relevant previous experiences into the process of forecasting (Wilson et al., 2001, 2003; Kermer et al., 2006; Ayton et al., 2007), which in turn necessitates an accurate recall of past emotional reactions. However, as the emotion itself is not stored in memory in a form that can be directly retrieved later (Robinson and Clore, 2002), past experiences are also subject to biases and people tend to overestimate their past emotional reactions (e.g., Redelmeier and Kahneman, 1996; Fredrickson, 2000). Furthermore, Robinson and Clore (2002) argue that the ability to learn from past experiences is impaired as details of our affective reactions become faded and less accessible over time, which in turn makes people rely more on general knowledge and beliefs when forecasting future affective reactions (see also Schwarz and Xu, 2011; Schwarz, 2012). In addition, the intensity of the impact bias might be so pronounced that it remains even after partial adjustment according to previous experiences, leading to biased forecasts (Wilson et al., 2001). The results of the present study, together with previous research, show that biases in forecasts are a general and robust phenomenon, prevalent for both outstanding and familiar events, with previous experience possibly moderating the magnitude of the bias, but not preventing it.

To further understand the impact bias, we analyzed the variability of the experience both between eating occasions within individuals and in relation to participants’ dispositional expectation toward eating (“foodiness”). One consequence of repeatedly eating throughout the day is a high number of distinct events that can vary both in valence and intensity. Forecasting an experience that involves a high fluctuation may be more difficult than a stable or consistent experience as people need to incorporate the variation of the experience across individual occasions. Focusing on the aspect of repetition within the experience shows that, as hypothesized, a greater variability of in-the-moment eating happiness resulted in lower forecasting accuracy across participants. Besides variations in the experience associated with food intake itself, people may also differ in their experience while eating, with some people enjoying and being happy with almost every food or meal and other people differentiating more between individual eating experiences.

To analyze this difference in experience while eating, we divided the sample into three groups based on the general expectation of eating (“foodiness”). The results showed that variability of in-the-moment eating happiness differed between foodiness groups with people in the low foodiness group displaying the greatest amount of variation between individual eating occasions. Expectations about an experience have been shown to affect the actual in-the-moment experience (Wilson et al., 1989; Klaaren et al., 1994; Totterdell et al., 1997; Wilson and Gilbert, 2003) and might therefore explain the difference in variability between foodiness groups. Specifically, differences in the variability might be explained by the affective expectation model (Wilson et al., 1989), according to which an affective reaction is formed by a comparison between expected and actual experience.

Geers and Lassiter (2002) further demonstrated that mental orientations toward experiences (optimism-pessimism) play an important role in the formation of in-the-moment experiences. People with a generally more positive outlook about their future (optimists) tend to assimilate their in-the-moment experiences toward their expectations, independent of whether their in-the-moment experience stands in line with or in contrast to their expectations. In contrast, people with a generally more negative outlook about their future (pessimists) have been shown to be more sensitive to contradicting information (Spirrison and Gordy, 1993). As a consequence, they only assimilate to their prior expectation when the experience is consistent with their expectation, while their affective reaction diverges from their expectation if they realize inconsistency (Wilson et al., 1989; Geers and Lassiter, 2002). Therefore, people with a low tendency toward foodiness might only have shown assimilation in congruent cases, while people with a high tendency toward foodiness might have assimilated toward their forecasted eating happiness regardless of whether or not their experience in-the-moment was consistent with their forecasts, leading to a more homogenous experience pattern and less variability.

However, even though variability of in-the-moment eating happiness differed between foodiness groups, the impact of variability on forecasting accuracy remained the same. Independent of dispositional expectations, experiencing more variability in-the-moment is more difficult to forecast, resulting in a lower forecasting accuracy. This indicates that forecasting accuracy is influenced by both stable differences between individuals, such as dispositions, but also by experience-specific differences such as the variability/stability of the experience. To summarize, dispositional expectation might influence the displayed variability of the in-the-moment experience, but the impact of the variability on forecasting accuracy is independent of dispositional expectations.

Findings of inter-individual differences also have implications on theories of affective forecasting. Most studies aim at examining and displaying errors at the general level across participants (see Wilson and Gilbert, 2003 for a review), focusing on mechanisms such as attention focus (Wilson et al., 2000) and rationalization processes (Gilbert et al., 1998). However, even though forecasts are prone to general mechanisms creating a systematic bias, a growing body of research provides evidence that people differ in their ability to provide accurate forecasts (Dunn et al., 2007; Wenze et al., 2012; Hoerger et al., 2012b; Christophe and Hansenne, 2016). Hoerger et al. (2016) suggest that dispositional differences such as personality contribute to forecasting accuracy because they affect underlying processes such as the ability to visualize the future, the awareness of the experience, and people’s tendency to forecast and experience more positive or negative emotions.

We add to this stream of research by assessing the impact of dispositional expectations as one facet of people’s personalities. The present results reveal that both in-the-moment experience and the magnitude of the bias are affected by people’s dispositional expectations toward eating (“foodiness”). Even though some people are better at forecasting their future affective responses, the pattern and variability of the actual experience play a crucial role in forecasting accurately. Consequently, summing up the independent effect for group membership and variability explains the greater divergence between forecasted and in-the-moment eating happiness in the low foodiness group. Hence, both dispositional differences and experience-specific aspects must be considered to enable meaningful conclusions for forecasting accuracy to be drawn.

From a broader perspective, it is interesting to relate the present findings to previous research on eating behaviors using ecological momentary assessment. Several studies focused on the relationship between affective reactions and eating behaviors (e.g., Liao et al., 2018; Strahler and Nater, 2018; Jeffers et al., 2019; Schultchen et al., 2019). However, their focus was primarily on the impact of stress and negative affect on food choice rather than the phenomenon of affective forecasting and how forecasted eating happiness relates to in-the-moment experienced happiness. However, integrating these lines of research appears promising and future research may specifically assess the degree to which variability of eating happiness can be attributed to situational context variables such as daily stress or emotional states (see Loewenstein, 1996; Loewenstein and Schkade, 1999; Gilbert et al., 2002; Loewenstein et al., 2003). In a related vein, the present study did not collect data on participant’s familiarity with the consumed foods. It seems possible that a diet composed of a rather limited and stable number of food items is easier to forecast than forecasting experiences with a greater variety and new and unknown foods and cuisines. Thus, future research should consider actual food intake to assess the effects of diet composition on the variability of in-the-moment eating happiness. It needs also to be considered that our results are based on a generally healthy sample that was interested in exploring their eating behavior. Furthermore, even though the sample size is comparable to or even larger than in other EMA studies assessing eating behaviors (Stein and Corte, 2003; Zepeda and Deal, 2008; Schüz et al., 2015a, 2015b), the sample might be considered as rather small in order to detect between-person effects (Gignac and Szodorai, 2016). Thus, the study findings should be replicated using larger and representative samples to acknowledge that eating is a complex behavior that is impacted by various factors and aspects on the personal, situational, and societal level (Renner et al., 2012; Stok et al., 2017). In addition, the finding that forecasted and actual experience often diverges may have potential implications for eating behaviors. For instance, while people adhere to the general belief that unhealthy foods lead to high pleasure (Raghunathan et al., 2006), in-the-moment eating happiness assessments revealed that fruits and vegetables evoked comparable high eating happiness as stereotypical unhealthy foods such as cake or candy (see Wahl et al., 2017a). Thus, one future direction of this line of research could build upon differences between forecasted and in-the-moment experiences to promote healthy eating.

In conclusion, the results of the present study contribute to the generalizability of research on affective forecasting, demonstrating that biased forecasts are a general phenomenon, present not only for outstanding events but also for familiar day-to-day experiences. Furthermore, dispositional differences between people such as dispositional expectations (“foodiness”) and experience-specific aspects such as variability/stability of the in-the-moment experience are both shown to be of great importance, with both impacting forecasting accuracy. Overall, while biased forecasts appear as a stable phenomenon in affective forecasts, inter-individual differences, and experience-specific aspects have a substantial impact in the manifestation and magnitude, and differentiated analyzes are therefore needed in research about affective forecasting.

Impact of Protestant Evangelism On Economic Outcomes: This church-based program may represent a method of increasing noncognitive skills & reducing poverty among adults in developing countries

Randomizing Religion: The Impact of Protestant Evangelism On Economic Outcomes. Gharad Bryan, James J. Choi, and Dean Karlan. Jun 2020. https://economics.harvard.edu/files/economics/files/ms29321.pdf

Abstract: We study the causal impact of religiosity through a randomized evaluation of an evangelical Protestant Christian values and theology education program delivered to thousands of ultra-poor Filipino households. Six months after the program ended, treated households have higher religiosity and income; no statistically significant differences in total labor supply, consumption, food security, or life satisfaction; and lower perceived relative economic status. Exploratory analysis suggests that the income treatment effect may operate through increasing grit. Thirty months after the program ended, significant differences in the intensity of religiosity disappear, but those in the treatment group are less likely to be Catholic and more likely to be Protestant, and there is some mixed evidence that their consumption and perceived relative economic status are higher. We conclude that this church-based program may represent a method of increasing noncognitive skills and reducing poverty among adults in developing countries.


I. INTRODUCTION
A literature dating back at least to Adam Smith and Max Weber has argued that religiosity is associated with a set of characteristics that promote economic success, including diligence, thriftiness, trust, and cooperation (Iannaccone 1998; Iyer 2016). More recent research has linked religiosity to positive outcomes in domains such as physical health (Ellison 1991), crime rates (Freeman 1986), drug and alcohol use (Gruber and Hungerman 2008), income (Gruber 2005), and educational attainment (Freeman 1986; Gruber 2005). Other studies have argued for negative economic effects of some aspects of religiosity due to a focus on otherworldliness (Weber [1905] 1958 in his discussion of Catholicism) and substitution toward church attendance away from production (Barro and McCleary 2003). Despite extensive research, claims that religion causes outcomes remain controversial, in part because people choose their religion. Naturally occurring religious affiliation is likely to be correlated with unobserved personal characteristics, which may be the true drivers of the observed correlations. Iannaccone (1998) writes that “nothing short of a (probably unattainable) ‘genuine experiment’ will suffice to demonstrate religion’s causal impact.” To study the causal impact of religiosity, we partnered with International Care Ministries (ICM), an evangelical Protestant anti-poverty organization that operates in the Philippines, to conduct an evaluation that randomly assigned invitations to attend Christian theology and values training. There are 285 million evangelical Christians in the world, comprising 13% of Christians and 36% of Protestants (Hackett and Grim 2011). 1 ICM is representative of an important sector that attempts to generate religiosity while alleviating poverty. ICM’s program, called Transform, normally consists of three components—Protestant Christian theology, values, and character virtues (“V”), health behaviors (“H”), and livelihood (i.e., self-employment) skills (“L”)—taught over 15 weekly meetings (plus a 16th meeting for a graduation ceremony). Each meeting lasts 90 minutes, spending 30 minutes per component. ICM’s leadership believes that the Values curriculum lies firmly in the mainstream of evangelical belief. Between 2009 and 2017, 194,000 people participated in Transform. The basic structure of the program, using a set series of classes outside of a Sunday worship service to evangelize, is a common model. For example, over 24 million people in 169 countries have taken the evangelistic Alpha course since 1977 (Bell 2013), and Samaritan’s Purse has enrolled 11 million children in about 100 countries in its evangelistic Greatest Journey course since 2010 (Samaritan’s Purse 2017). Like Transform, these are courses of approximately a dozen sessions. We randomly assigned 320 communities (from which we selected 7,999 households) to receive the full Transform curriculum (VHL), to receive only the Health and Livelihood components of the curriculum (HL), to receive only the Christian values component of the curriculum (V), or to be a no-curriculum control (C). We identify the effect of religiosity by comparing invited households in VHL communities to invited households in HL communities, and invited households in V communities to households in C communities that would have been invited had that community been assigned to be treated. We measure outcomes approximately six months and 30 months after the training sessions ended and analyze them in accordance with a pre-analysis plan. At six months, we find that those who were invited to receive the V curriculum have significantly higher religiosity than those who did not receive the V curriculum, demonstrating that the treatment had its intended first-stage effect. Examining downstream economic outcomes while correcting for multiple hypothesis tests by controlling the false discovery rate (FDR), we find that the V curriculum increased household income by 9.2%, but had no statistically significant effect on total labor supply, assets, consumption of a subset of goods, food security, or life satisfaction, and it decreased perceptions of relative economic status within one’s community by 0.11 points on a 10 point scale. 2 Post-hoc analysis shows that the income effect is strongly concentrated on the Transform invitee and is not significant for other household members’ labor income, providing further support that the estimated income effect is not a Type I error. Exploratory regressions suggest that the religiosity treatment effect operates by increasing grit (Duckworth et al. 2007)—specifically, the portion of grit associated with perseverance of effort (and in particular, agreement with the statements “I am a very hard worker,” “I finish whatever I begin,” and “Setbacks don’t discourage me.”). This mechanism accords with Weber’s conception of the Protestant work ethic. We find no consistent movement in the other potential mechanisms that we measured: social capital, locus of control (other than the belief that God is in control, which increases), optimism, and self-control. Furthermore, post-hoc analysis finds that the HL treatment had no statistically significant effects on income or perceived relative economic status at six months. 3 Because the HL treatment includes many of the non-religious aspects of the V intervention (e.g., meeting in a group over a number of weeks), this null finding suggests that the six-month V curriculum treatment effect primarily captures the impact of altered religiosity. By 30 months, there is no longer a statistically significant difference in the intensity of religiosity between the experimental groups. However, individuals who received the V curriculum are 3.6 percentage points less likely to identify as Catholic and 2.3 percentage points more likely to identify as Protestant. To put these changes in context, the control group at 30 months is 70% Catholic and 21% Protestant. There is mixed evidence on the effects on downstream economic outcomes. Relative to the no-curriculum control, those who received only the V curriculum have a significantly higher perceived relative economic status (0.34 points on a 10-point scale) and marginally significantly higher consumption (7.5% of the control group mean, FDR q-value = 0.062). Exploration of the mechanisms responsible for these positive effects finds that V curriculum recipients are more optimistic, even though they do not have higher grit. On the other hand, we find no statistically significant effects on primary economic outcomes when combining the VHL versus HL and V versus control comparisons. This difference in findings is driven by the fact that the HL group appears better off than the VHL group at 30 months. Relative to the no-curriculum control, the HL group has significantly higher income and perceived relative economic status (in tests that do not adjust for multiple comparisons). Interpreting these results requires an understanding of the context and details of the intervention. ICM operates in a setting where most people claim to be religious. In the six-month survey, only 2.4% of those who did not receive the V curriculum and 2.3% of those who did receive the V curriculum indicate that they are “not religious at all.” Our experiment should therefore be understood as measuring the effects of strengthening pre-existing religiosity or changing the emphasis of pre-existing religious beliefs, rather than the effects of causing the completely irreligious to become religious. Arguably, these intensive margin effects are the most relevant ones, since 84% of the world’s population is religious (Pew Research Center 2015). It is also important to note that ICM targets the ultra-poor within communities, and the communities in our study (including those in the no-curriculum control) are chosen by pastors who presumably believe that they would be able to run a successful program there. Most expansions by religious organizations into a community are probably based on a belief that the community would be receptive, so these are an externally relevant type of community. It is possible that the ultra-poor are more receptive to religious outreach than less impoverished individuals (Chen 2010), so ICM’s outreach may be more effective than comparable outreach to higher-income populations. In addition, religiosity is not a singular concept, and its causal impact will likely depend on many factors. Johnson, Tompkin, and Webb (2008) differentiate between “organic” exposure to religion over a prolonged period of time (e.g., through one’s upbringing at home) and “intentional” exposure through participation in a specific program targeting a specific set of individuals. Both are important channels of religious propagation, and the type of religiosity produced may depend on the channel. Our study is about intentionally generated religiosity of a specific kind (evangelical Protestant Christian), and a significant aim of our study is to establish, in the context of a randomized controlled trial, that intentional exposure to a religious program can generate the critical first stage: an exogenous change in religiosity.


[...]


Our work also relates to a growing number of papers that use instrumental variables or natural experiments to study the causal effect of religion on economic outcomes.4 Clingingsmith, Khwaja, and Kremer (2009) find that winning a lottery for hajj visas changes beliefs, values, and religious practices. Barro and McCleary (2003) conduct a cross-country analysis of economic growth using the existence of a state religion, state regulation of religion, adherence shares for the major religions, and a religious pluralism index as instruments. They find that religious beliefs (“believing”) increase economic growth, whereas religious service attendance (“belonging”) decreases growth. Because our study does not induce independent exogenous variation in beliefs versus behaviors, we cannot add further evidence on this “believing versus belonging” hypothesis. Gruber (2005) uses local ancestral mix as an instrument and finds that religious participation in the U.S. (which is almost entirely Christian) increases education, income, and marriage rates and decreases disability and divorce rates. Gruber and Hungerman (2008) exploit the repeal of U.S. state laws prohibiting retail activity on Sundays and find that Christian religious participation decreases drinking and drug use. Bottan and Perez-Truglia (2015) study the decline in Catholic religious participation caused by clergy scandals and find evidence that religious participation increases charitable giving

[...]

We report an association between the increased frequency of cannabis use and increased male sexual function; although selection bias in this survey may limit the generalizability of these findings

Bhambhvani HP, Kasman AM, Wilson-King G, et al. A Survey Exploring the Relationship Between Cannabis Use Characteristics and Sexual Function in Men. J Sex Med 2020;XX:XXX–XXX. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esxm.2020.06.002

Abstract
Introduction: Cannabis is the most commonly used drug in the United States; however, the effects of cannabis use on male sexual function are poorly understood.

Aim: To characterize the contemporary landscape of cannabis use and to assess the associations between male sexual function and the frequency of use, the primary method of consumption, or cannabis chemovar (tetrahydrocannabinol or cannabidiol) among current users.

Methods: We surveyed adults who visited a single cannabis dispensary for baseline demographic information, medical history, cannabis use habits, and sexual function as assessed by the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF). An IIEF-5 < 21 was considered erectile dysfunction.

Main Outcome Measures: The main outcome measure of the study was male sexual function via the IIEF domain scores.

Results: A total of 325 men completed the survey with a mean age of 46.7 years. 71.1% of the men were Caucasian and 52.6% were married. 13 men (4%) were never users; 29 men (8.9%) used 1–2 times/week; 51 men (15.7%) used 3–5 times/week, and 232 men (71.4%) used 6+ times/week. The average IIEF-5 score was 22.3 with 19.4% of the men having erectile dysfunction. In univariate analysis, men using cannabis more frequently had a higher overall IIEF (65.36 vs 60.52, P = .001), erectile domain (27.32 vs 25.74, P = .03), orgasm domain (9.08 vs 8.12, P < .001), intercourse satisfaction domain (12.42 vs 11.31, P = .006), and overall satisfaction domain (8.11 vs 7.05, P = .002). In multivariable analysis, compared to men who used cannabis 0 times/week, those who used 6 times/week had an increased overall IIEF (69.08 vs 64.64, P-value adjusted = 0.02), intercourse satisfaction domain (P-value adjusted = 0.04), and overall satisfaction domain (P-value adjusted = 0.02). The primary method of consumption (eg, smoking, edibles, etc.) and cannabinoid composition (eg, cannabidiol vs tetrahydrocannabinol dominant) were not associated with sexual function.

Conclusion: We report an association between the increased frequency of cannabis use and increased male sexual function. However, while the increased frequency of use was statistically significant with regard to the IIEF scores, the clinical significance of this is likely low, and selection bias may limit the generalizability of these findings. The method of consumption and cannabis chemovar were not associated with sexual function.

Key Words: CannabisOrgasmErectile dysfunctionSHIM

Discussion

In this study of over 300 men, we report, for the first time, evidence of a frequency-response relationship between cannabis use and sexual function, with increasing use associated with an increased overall IIEF score, intercourse satisfaction domain, and overall satisfaction domain. Similarly, more frequent cannabis use is associated with lower odds of ED. Importantly, the primary method of consumption, cannabis chemovar, and indication for use are not associated with sexual function.

While others have examined the association between male sexual function and cannabis use, most studies have not used validated measures of erectile function. Despite this, our findings of increased intercourse satisfaction domain and overall satisfaction domain with increased cannabis use are consistent with subjective reports of increased sexual satisfaction, sensitivity, and orgasm strength among most cannabis users reported by some studies.9,15 The largest survey of sexual health among male cannabis users was conducted by Smith et al in Australia and included over 4,000 men.7 Although the authors did not use a validated measure of erectile function, they found that subjectively there was no association between the frequency of cannabis use and self-reported trouble keeping an erection. The current report also found no change in erectile function; however, we did identify improvements in other domains of sexual function and a lower prevalence of ED with more cannabis use. Smith et al also found that daily cannabis use in men was associated with difficulty to achieve orgasm as desired. Although the authors did not discuss any potential mechanisms underpinning this association, it is possible that an altered cognitive state induced by cannabis consumption may contribute to difficulty in attaining orgasm. A recent qualitative survey of both men and women reported that some participants were unable to orgasm as desired on cannabis because of a lack of focus or altered mindset.16

To our knowledge, only one study, by Kumsar et al, has investigated male sexual health associations with cannabis using the complete IIEF survey.17 Here, the authors surveyed men with substance use disorder presenting to a dedicated substance abuse treatment center in Turkey. They found no differences in the overall IIEF score or any domain scores between cannabis users and nonusers. However, this study of 20 cannabis users had limited power to identify differences between the control population and was not able to identify the frequency of cannabis use.

A few studies have used the SHIM as an outcome measure, allowing for proper comparison with our results. In a survey of 2,507 Swiss men aged between 18 and 25 years, Mialon et al found that there was no association between cannabis use and ED in a bivariate analysis.18 However, the age of the population may limit the prevalence of sexual dysfunction. In contrast, Elbendary et al found that adult drug use, which mostly consisted of cannabis use in their cohort, was associated with increased odds of ED in multivariable analysis.19 However, the lack of granularity with regard to the type or frequency of use may have confounded the association between cannabis use and ED. Thus, the literature suggests that the effects of cannabis on sexual function can be either positive or negative and may vary by the dose and frequency of use.

Although we found statistically significant associations between the increasing frequency of cannabis use and increases in the overall IIEF, intercourse satisfaction domain, and overall satisfaction domain scores, the clinical significance of these results is unclear. The minimal clinically important difference for the erectile domain of the IIEF is widely considered to be an increase by 4 points.20 To our knowledge, however, no other studies have assessed what constitutes a minimal clinically important difference for the overall IIEF or other domain scores. Given the point increases conferred by the increasing frequency of cannabis by 6 additional uses per week ranged from a 4.44-point increase for the overall IIEF to a 0.68-point increase for overall satisfaction, it is likely that these modest increases in the IIEF scores are not clinically significant. At a minimum, these results suggest that the increasing frequency of cannabis consumption does not impair sexual function. Furthermore, our results must not be interpreted as implying a causal relationship between the increased frequency of cannabis use and improved sexual function; rather, the results of the present study simply identify a correlation.

Taken together, our findings suggest that there exists a relationship between the increasing frequency of cannabis use and slight sexual benefit to men in the realms of intercourse satisfaction and overall satisfaction, while the primary method of consumption and chemical composition are not associated with sexual function. The mechanisms underlying sexual enhancement from cannabis use are as yet poorly understood. It is postulated that the aphrodisiac-like properties of cannabis, including increased sensitivity, sexual satisfaction, and orgasm strength, involve altered perception of the sexual encounter and activation of cannabinoid receptors in the central nervous system.21 Indeed, a study of noncopulating male rats demonstrated that pharmacologic activation of the central nervous system's endocannabinoid network resulted in sexual behavior in 50% of the population.22 In humans, a study using functional magnetic resonance imaging revealed that cannabis intoxication modulates the response of the right nucleus accumbens to visual erotic stimuli.23 The nucleus accumbens is involved in the processing of the rewarding effects of sexual behavior, and activation of dopamine receptors in this brain region is shown to increase sexual motivation even among sexually satiated rodents.24,25 The cannabinoid composition of consumed cannabis may modulate the effect on sexual behavior, as well. In one study of male mice, chronic CBD exposure resulted in a decreased sexual behavior, as demonstrated by a reduced number of mounts and ejaculations, whereas THC exposure has been linked to a heightened sexual behavior in female mice.26,27 Ultimately, the effect of cannabis chemovar on sexuality is not well defined and should be further explored. Finally, cannabis use can induce an altered perception of time, potentially leading to artificially prolonged feelings of sexual pleasure and excitement.28

This study should be considered in the context of its limitations. First, our cohort is a population of men who made a purchase at a dispensary and represents a select population of cannabis users, which excludes individuals receiving cannabis through other means and therefore may not be generalizable. Indeed, the erectile function scores of men in the present study are higher than what would be expected of a typical cohort of men, roughly half of whom are at least 50 years old. Furthermore, the rates of use in the present study are high, with most men using 6+ times per week. Reassuringly, however, the population is geographically diverse and does not apply to a single region in the US, as can be seen from the home region data in Table 1. Second, there is inherent volunteer bias among men who chose to complete the surgery. Third, although we used a validated questionnaire for erectile function, the responses are still subjective and self-reported, as opposed to objectively measured. Fourth, it is possible that some of the self-reported responses, in particular cannabis chemovar, were inaccurate as the accuracy of self-reporting of chemovar is unknown. Fifth, while the frequency was assessed, the dose of the cannabis chemovar was not assessed in the survey; therefore, it is possible that less-frequent users may have been consuming higher doses. Sixth, the lack of a large, widely representative control group prevents robust comparison between heavy users and nonusers. Finally, although users were asked about their experiences in the last 4 weeks, we did not discriminate between new and chronic users.

The largest group of bullies of women were female peers, who rarely bullied male peers, while male peers bullied both genders about equally

An exploration of gender and workplace bullying in New Zealand. Dianne Gardner, Maree Roche, Tim Bentley, Helena Cooper-Thomas, Bevan Catley, Stephen Teo, Linda Trenberth. International Journal of Manpower, June 4 2020. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJM-02-2019-0067/full/html

Abstract
Purpose: Workplace bullying involves a power imbalance, and despite laws in New Zealand which prohibit discrimination on the grounds of gender, women remain under-represented in top-level roles. The aim of the study was to examine whether gender and role (managerial/non-managerial) were related to the bullying experienced by women and men.

Design/methodology/approach: An online survey collected data from 991 (41%) men and 1,421 (59%) women. The survey provided a definition of bullying and asked participants whether they had been bullied at work. If they replied yes, then follow-up questions asked for the gender and role of the perpetrator.

Findings: Women were more likely than men to self-identify as having been bullied. Male employers, senior managers, middle managers, supervisor and peers bullied men and women about equally, whereas women bullied women far more than they bullied men. The largest group of bullies of women were female peers, who rarely bullied male peers, while male peers bullied both genders about equally. Female clients bullied female staff but almost never male staff; male clients bullied both men and women but the numbers were small.

Research limitations/implications: These data relied on self-report, and people may be reluctant to identify themselves as targets or may not recognize that the negative behaviours they have been facing amount to bullying. Qualitative data can help explore these issues from societal, organizational and policy perspectives.

Practical implications: While men and women may differ in how often they recognize or admit to having been bullied, the gendered nature of power in the workplace is well established and reinforced in the findings here. It is clear that organizational leaders, both male and female, need to understand gender and power imbalance and act as role models. Currently, the authors’ findings show that the behaviour of at least some of those at the top of New Zealand organizations needs to improve.

Social implications: The problem of bullying at work will not be easy to solve. The solutions lie, not with “fixing” individuals via training, stress management and well-being programmes but with effective systems, procedures, policies and leadership that recognize the power dynamics at work.

Originality/value: Little is known at present about the relationships between gender and bullying behaviour. The paper focusses on who bullies whom in the workplace and finds that men tend to bully both men and women while women tend to bully women. Importantly, the authors’ works suggest that instead of structural and organizational measures to manage bullying, greater initiatives to manage bullying need to consider how gender and power dynamics interact at work.

Emotional intelligence was ranked somewhat more desirable than cognitive intelligence; those who reduced their ratings of desirability for the very intelligent did so due to compatibility concerns & social skill concerns

The costs of being exceptionally intelligent: Compatibility and interpersonal skill concerns. Gilles E. Gignac, Zoe M.V. Callis. Intelligence, Volume 81, July–August 2020, 101465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2020.101465

Highlights
• The 90th IQ percentile (IQ ≈ 120) was rated the most desirable in a partner.
• There was a decrease in rated desirability from the 90th to the 99th IQ percentiles.
• People expressed compatibility concerns (≈60%) and social skill concerns (≈40%)
• By comparison, no decrease in desirability from the 90th to the 99th EI percentiles.
• EI was ranked somewhat more desirable than cognitive intelligence.

Abstract: People tend to rate exceptional levels of IQ (99th percentile) as less attractive than high levels of IQ (90th percentile), and it remains to be determined why. Furthermore, the desirability of emotional intelligence (EI) in a prospective partner has yet to be investigated. Finally, we sought to determine whether individual differences in self-assessed and objectively measured IQ/EI correlated with desirability ratings of IQ/EI in a prospective partner. Based on a general community sample (N = 236) and an undergraduate sample (N = 220), we found that the association between rated desirability and the IQ/EI level of a prospective partner exhibited a threshold effect at the 90th IQ/EI percentile. Furthermore, a statistically significant decrease in rated desirability between the 90th to the 99th percentiles was observed for IQ, but not for EI. We found that participants who reduced their ratings of desirability between the 90th and 99th IQ percentiles did so due to compatibility concerns (≈60%) and social skill concerns (≈40%). We also found that self-assessed IQ and objectively measured IQ correlated positively with desirability ratings at the 90th IQ percentile, and self-assessed EI (but not objectively measured EI) with desirability ratings at the 90th EI percentile. Finally, we found that, on average, people ranked/rated EI to be somewhat more desirable than IQ. We interpreted the results as consistent with compatibility theory, active assortative mating for intelligence, and the possibility that many people subscribe to the stereotype that exceptionally intelligent people suffer from interpersonal skill difficulties.

Rolf Degen summarizing: People don't ascribe greater free will to morally "bad" actions, but to all actions that violate norms, even if they are praiseworthy or strange

Monroe, A. E., & Ysidron, D. W. (2020). Not so motivated after all? Three replication attempts and a theoretical challenge to a morally motivated belief in free will. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Jun 2020. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000788

Free will is often appraised as a necessary input to for holding others morally or legally responsible for misdeeds. Recently, however, Clark and colleagues (2014) argued for the opposite causal relationship. They assert that moral judgments and the desire to punish motivate people’s belief in free will. Three replication experiments (Studies 1–2b) attempt to reproduce these findings. Additionally, a novel experiment (Study 3) tests a theoretical challenge derived from attribution theory, which suggests that immoral behaviors do not uniquely influence free will judgments. Instead, our nonviolation model argues that norm deviations of any kind—good, bad, or strange—cause people to attribute more free will to agents. Across replication experiments we found no consistent evidence for the claim that witnessing immoral behavior causes people to increase their general belief in free will. By contrast, we replicated the finding that people attribute more free will to agents who behave immorally compared to a neutral control (Studies 2a and 3). Finally, our novel experiment demonstrated broad support for our norm-violation account, suggesting that people’s willingness to attribute free will to others is malleable, but not because people are motivated to blame. Instead, this experiment shows that attributions of free will are best explained by people’s expectations for norm adherence, and when these expectations are violated, people infer that an agent expressed their free will to do so.

Morality Is in the Eye of the Beholder: Unpacking the Neurocognitive Basis of the “anomalous-is-bad

Workman, Clifford I., Stacey Humphries, Franziska Hartung, Geoffrey Aguirre, Joe Kable, and Anjan Chatterjee. 2020. “Morality Is in the Eye of the Beholder: Unpacking the Neurocognitive Basis of the “anomalous-is-bad” Stereotype.” PsyArXiv. June 10. doi:10.31234/osf.io/mz75u

Abstract: Are people with flawed faces regarded as having flawed moral characters? An “anomalous-is-bad” stereotype is hypothesized to facilitate biases towards people with facial anomalies (e.g., scars), although whether and how these biases affect behavior and brain functioning remain open questions. We replicated previously reported negative character evaluations made about individuals with facial anomalies, and further identified explicit biases directed against them as a group. People with anomalous faces were subjected to less prosociality from those participants highest in socioeconomic status. In amygdala, selective neural responding to anomalous faces—sensitive to beauty and disgust, but not explained by salience or arousal—correlated with stronger just world beliefs (i.e., people get what they deserve), less dispositional empathic concern, and less prosociality towards people with facial anomalies. Characterizing the “anomalous-is-bad” stereotype across and between levels of organization—i.e., attitudes, behavior, and brain–can reveal underappreciated psychological burdens shouldered by people who look different.

Investigating the Health Consequences for White Americans Who Believe White Americans Are Wealthy

Investigating the Health Consequences for White Americans Who Believe White Americans Are Wealthy. Erin Cooley et al. Social Psychological and Personality Science, June 12, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620905219

Abstract: Poor White Americans report feeling “worse off” than poor Black Americans despite the persistent negative effects of racism on Black Americans. Additionally, some health issues are rising among White but not Black Americans. Across two representative samples, we test whether White = wealthy stereotypes lead White Americans to feel relatively worse off than their racial group and whether these perceptions have health consequences. Across both samples, White Americans perceived their own status to be significantly lower than the status of the majority of White Americans. In contrast, Black Americans perceived their own status to be significantly higher than the majority of Black Americans. Critically, status comparisons between the self and one’s racial group predicted the experience of fewer positive emotions among White, but not Black, Americans, which mediated reduced mental and physical health. We conclude that race/class stereotypes may shape how poverty subjectively feels.

Keywords race, economic inequality, health, social cognition

Simply treating the weekend “like a vacation” (vs. “like a regular weekend”) on subsequent happiness—measured as more positive affect, less negative affect, & greater satisfaction when back at work on Monday

Happiness From Treating the Weekend Like a Vacation. Colin West, Cassie Mogilner, Sanford E. DeVoe. Social Psychological and Personality Science, June 15, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620916080

Abstract: Americans are time-poor. They work long hours and leave paid vacation days unused. An analysis of over 200,000 U.S. workers reveals that not prioritizing vacation is linked to lower happiness. Many people, however, do not feel they can take vacation due to financial and temporal constraints. How might people enjoy the emotional benefits of vacation without taking additional time off or spending additional money? Three preregistered experiments tested the effect of simply treating the weekend “like a vacation” (vs. “like a regular weekend”) on subsequent happiness—measured as more positive affect, less negative affect, and greater satisfaction when back at work on Monday. Although unable to definitively rule out the role of demand characteristics, the study results suggest that treating the weekend like a vacation can increase happiness, and exploratory analyses show support for the underlying role of increased attention to the present moment.

Keywords happiness, subjective well-being, vacation, time, attention to the present, mindfulness

Waiting to Inhale: Sniffing in everyday conversation has several uses, like to delay turn to speak, or to mark the end of our intervention; it helps organize speaking

Waiting to Inhale: On Sniffing in Conversation. Elliott Michael Hoey. In Research on Language and Social Interaction 53(1):118–139, January 2020. DOI: 10.1080/08351813.2020.1712962

Abstract: This article examines sniffing in everyday conversations. It builds on prior conversation analytic research on respiratory conduct, which has shown how things like inbreaths, sighs, and laughter are delicately organized and consequential components of the social occasions into which they figure. Sniffing—the swift, audible, intake of breath through the nasal passage—is analyzed by reference to its sequential placement in talk. Using a collection of 70 cases of sniffs in naturally occurring conversations, two recurrent uses of sniffing are described. Sniffs placed before or during a turn-at-talk serve to delay turn progression. And sniffs placed in the postcompletion space of a turn can indicate its completion. This association between postcompletion sniffing and turn completion is further supported through a comparison with postcompletion inbreaths. By situating sniffing in its sequential contexts, the organization of breathing is shown to be bound up with the organization of speaking.

Election 2016: Trump supporters remember a coherent story; Clinton supporters have higher memory vividness; our observations are consistent with prior findings from the trauma literature

Chiew, Kimberly S., Bailey B. Harris, and R. A. Adcock. 2020. “Remembering Election Night 2016: Subjective but Not Objective Metrics of Autobiographical Memory Vary with Political Affiliation, Affective Valence, and Surprise.” PsyArXiv. June 13. doi:10.31234/osf.io/dc5tw

Abstract: Flashbulb memories represent a unique phenomenon linking research on cognition with research on emotion, yet most studies on this phenomenon have characterized collective events that are negative and unexpected in nature. In contrast, the 2016 American election of Donald Trump was a public, culturally-shared event, eliciting extreme emotional responses that were positive for some individuals but negative for others, as well as varying levels of surprise. We longitudinally evaluated autobiographical memories for Election Night 2016 in a large online sample of Clinton supporters, Trump supporters, and third-party/non-voters over a 12-month period, in terms of both objective memory metrics (information quantity and memory consistency) and subjective memory metrics (including memory confidence, metacognition, and sensory experience). Emotional responses to the election outcome varied widely, with Clinton supporters reporting highly negative responses, Trump supporters reporting highly positive responses, and third-party/non-voters reporting mildly negative responses. Emotional intensity was enhanced in surprised versus non-surprised individuals. Relative to third-party/non-voters, Clinton and Trump supporters reported greater memory vividness, event importance, and sensory experience. Additionally, memory confidence and rehearsal differed with valence (higher confidence in Trump supporters; higher memory rehearsal in Clinton supporters). These differences in subjective experience were observed despite similar levels of information quantity and consistency across groups. This characterization of memories for surprising positive events suggests they share many of the paradoxical qualities of memories for negative events often discussed as “flashbulb memories”, and further points to important potentially distinct features of memory phenomenology for collectively-experienced, relative to personal, events.

High heels enhance not only perceived sexual attractiveness (more leg length too, beyond a sexy way of walking), but also promote women’s mate-guarding

High heels enhance perceived sexual attractiveness, leg length and women’s mate-guarding. Pavol Prokop. Current Psychology Jun 13 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00832-y

Abstract: Women’s physical attractiveness is associated with health and fertility, but various fashion accessories could act, however, as supernormal stimuli and may enhance physical attractiveness to the opposite sex. Wearing high heels could contribute to women’s physical attractiveness in various ways. Across three independent studies, I investigated whether high heels influence the perception of leg length and consequently their physical attractiveness in both sexes and their role in women’s intrasexual competition. Heeled legs were more attractive than non-heeled legs and heeled legs were also viewed as longer than non-heeled legs. Furthermore, high heels promote women’s mates guarding of their own partners as well as their perception of the sexual receptivity of the target wearing high heels. In conclusion, visually prolonged leg length by wearing high heels make legs more sexually attractive and high heels promote competition between women for access to the opposite sex.

Self reporting: Within the married subsample (n = 898), conscientiousness is negatively associated with spousal infidelity, and agreeableness is positively associated with spousal infidelity

Self‐reported Big Five personality traits of individuals who have experienced partner infidelity. Meghna Mahambrey. Personal Relationships, June 10 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12315

Abstract: Infidelity is defined as unapproved romantic or sexual behaviors outside of one's relationship. Previous literature has identified characteristics of the partner involved in infidelity; this study investigates the Big Five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) of uninvolved partners. Relationship quality and physical intimacy are also examined within a married subsample. Data was drawn from the second wave of the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS), collected through telephone interviews and self‐administered questionnaires between 2004 and 2006. Results for the overall sample (N = 1,577) indicate that conscientiousness is negatively associated with lifetime partner infidelity. Within the married subsample (n = 898), conscientiousness is negatively associated with spousal infidelity, and agreeableness is positively associated with spousal infidelity.

Coral reef islands can accrete vertically in response to sea level rise

Coral reef islands can accrete vertically in response to sea level rise. Gerd Masselink, Eddie Beetham, Paul Kench. Science Advances, Jun 10 2020, Vol. 6, no. 24, eaay3656. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aay3656

Abstract: Increased flooding due to sea level rise (SLR) is expected to render reef islands, defined as sandy or gravel islands on top of coral reef platforms, uninhabitable within decades. Such projections generally assume that reef islands are geologically inert landforms unable to adjust morphologically. We present numerical modeling results that show reef islands composed of gravel material are morphodynamically resilient landforms that evolve under SLR by accreting to maintain positive freeboard while retreating lagoonward. Such island adjustment is driven by wave overtopping processes transferring sediment from the beachface to the island surface. Our results indicate that such natural adaptation of reef islands may provide an alternative future trajectory that can potentially support near-term habitability on some islands, albeit with additional management challenges. Full characterization of SLR vulnerability at a given reef island should combine morphodynamic models with assessments of climate-related impacts on freshwater supplies, carbonate sediment supply, and future wave regimes.

DISCUSSION
Our numerical model simulations, validated against small-scale physical model tests, indicate that reef islands will undergo physical transformations in response to SLR and can maintain island surfaces above sea level. Notably, we present the first process-based numerical model simulations of future island change that highlight lateral displacement of shorelines and vertical building of the island crest and island surface. These adjustments are mediated through island rollover, driven by overtopping and overwash processes, and a tentative threshold separating these two regimes for our modeled gravel barrier subjected to wave conditions of Hs = 2–4 m is a mean overwash discharge across the island crest of 0.01 m3 m−1 s−1 associated with maximum overwash depths of 0.2 to 0.4 m. Our results further indicate that the magnitude and pace of change will be dependent on both the rate of SLR and changing wave regimes. These modeled trajectories of island dynamics are consistent with modes of island change observed in recent studies throughout the Indo-Pacific (17, 19, 20–22).

The morphological modeling approach adopted here considers coral reef island response to climate change only as a result of rising sea level. However, increased ocean water temperature is expected to increase the intensity of tropical storms, resulting in enhanced coastal flooding (31), thereby accelerating the rollover process identified in this study, and also has substantial adverse effects on the health of coral reef systems that may modify carbonate sediment production regimes that contribute to island building and maintenance (32). In addition, island habitability is not only a function of island freeboard it also depends on the island planform area, which, without sediment input from the reef structure, may reduce as a result of rollover. Storlazzi et al.(4) have demonstrated that enhanced coastal flooding due to SLR is expected to lead to increased contamination of the freshwater aquifer, where they occur, a process not accounted for in the present numerical modeling approach. It is also important to emphasize that the reef island modeled here is made of gravel, and because of the reduced mobility and increased hydraulic conductivity of gravel compared with that of sand, it could be argued that gravel islands may be particularly responsive and able to keep up with rising sea level. Notwithstanding a modeling approach that only considers the morphodynamic impacts of SLR and the complex set of factors that influence island habitability (33–35), our results confirm recent assertions that the physical foundations for island communities may persist (21). Compared with a static reef island model, the vertical buildup of island elevation by overwash processes modeled here can also offset the increase in future flood risk due to SLR. However, our results also indicate that communities are likely to be confronted with ongoing and escalating rates of island physical change that will stress populations and require careful consideration of the full spectrum of adaptation strategies.

Our analysis provides an empirical basis to help inform appropriate adaptation pathways in island nations, with continued habitation of islands underpinning the majority of these approaches (Fig. 4). The simulated morphodynamic trajectories suggest a cascade of responses is likely, beginning with island keep-up and marginal island narrowing under slower rates of SLR and dominant overtopping regimes. Faster-paced lateral migration of islands and increased reduction in freeboard are projected under faster rates (and greater magnitudes) of SLR and higher wave regimes, producing dominant overwash regimes (Fig. 4). In the most extreme cases, dominant overwashing forces loss of freeboard and rapid rollover of island sediment reservoirs. This cascade of morphological changes supports recent studies (21, 36) that indicate that physical responses are likely to vary between islands, reflecting differences in antecedent condition (e.g., sedimentary fabric and abundance, island size, and presence/absence of conglomerate platform) and environmental boundary conditions (storm wave climate and rate of SLR). Such differences in morphodynamic behavior present the opportunity to develop nuanced adaptation solutions in different island settings, rather than adopt a one-solution approach that ultimately results in island abandonment and relocation (10). Islands with artificial shoreline defenses compromise the ability of shorelines to undergo natural adjustment to changes in the process regime and lock communities into hard structural solutions and a maladaptive dependency. Under extreme scenarios of change, islands may become uninhabitable, and community relocation and structural solutions may become the only alternatives. However, between the binary outcomes—hold the line and community migration—exist a suite of alternate solutions that reflect the dynamic nature of island change and allow planning and soft engineering strategies. Furthermore, given the progressive nature of island transformations, the suite of options provide opportunities for adaptive planning pathways to be developed at the island scale (37), which allows resources to be deployed in a more efficient manner and avoid maladaptive interventions (38).

[Fig. 4 Conceptual diagram of reef island morphological adjustment to future SLR under different environmental and management scenarios.]

Island response is driven by extrinsic factors (rate of SLR, storm characteristics, and overtopping/overwashing balance) and controlled by intrinsic factors (presence/absence of conglomerate platform beneath the island, reef growth, size of the island, and sediment supply). The most appropriate adaptation strategy (managed realignment, nourishment, coastal defense, and relocation) to deal with island change is strongly determined by the type of island response to SLR. For example, an island that is narrowing, but maintaining freeboard, could benefit more from nourishment than coastal defense. If an island is already completely defended, preventing overtopping and overwashing, the only way to maintain habitation is upgrading the coastal defenses (or relocation). The width of the black bars represents the magnitude/importance/relevance of the factor in question.

The pursuit of alternate adaptation pathways does not negate the need to pursue ongoing mitigation action to curtail future SLR and climatic changes on small island nations. However, morphodynamic modeling provides a basis to resolve island-specific trajectories of change to underpin the development of adaptation strategies that may extend the duration of habitation of these islands to at least more than several decades. Future morphodynamic modeling of reef island response to SLR must not only explore further SLR and wave conditions but also need to incorporate the different environmental factors, such as island morphology, reef platform adjustment, and sediment supply.

From 2018... Women’s Pornography. In Pornographies: Critical Positions

Attwood, F. ‘Women’s Pornography’. In Katherine Harrison and Cassandra A. Ogden (Editors) Pornographies: Critical Positions, 2018. ISBN 978-1-908258-32-8. Chester: University of Chester Press. https://www.academia.edu/31463313

Pornography has often been presented as a form of violence against women or an expression of patriarchy, and more recently, as the source of the sexualization of mainstream culture with significant negative impacts on women. At the same time the development of feminist porn studies (see for example, Penley et al., 2013; Maina, 2014) and ‘The ‘Fifty Shades phenomenon’ in which EL James’ book trilogy (2011-2013) became a worldwide bestseller, followed by a widely publicized film (2015), has made women more visible than ever as producers and consumers of pornography.

In this chapter I provide an introduction and brief overview of some of the developments in pornographies that are produced and consumed by women. This is necessarily highly partial given both the timescale I am interested in (1970s to the present day), the wide range of pornographies and other varieties of sexually explicit material that are available, and the relative scarcity of academic work on the production, content and reception of pornographies for women. My aim here is to introduce some of the key contributions to academic literature in the area, chart some of the most well-known areas of production and consumption during the period, and consider three key themes - characterizing women’s porn, authenticity, and participation.

---

Porn comics have also been a popular site for women’s pornography. Little academic attention has been paid to Anglophone porn comics for women produced within the US market (Roberts, 2015) but the development of a Japanese tradition has been quite widely researched. Originating in shojo-manga (girls comics), originally dominated by male mangaka, shonen-ai– a genre of male-male romance was developed by female mangaka during the 1970s, focusing on intense, eroticized relationships between bishonen or ‘beautiful boys’ (Madill, forthcoming; see also McLelland, 2000; Levi, McHarry and Pagliassotti, 2010; Nagaike and Suganuma, 2013). A related genre - ‘ladies comics’ (see Shamoon, 2004, p. 82) - portrayed ‘real (or at least realistic) women actively pursuing their own sexual pleasure’ and ‘taking the initiative in sexual experimentation’ (Shamoon, 2004, p. 79; see also Jones, 2005), the comic format allowing for the portrayal of female pleasure and orgasm in a way that is not possible on film. Whereas ladies comics virtually excluded the male body, putting the female body on display (2004, p. 83) - as Anglophone comics for women have also tended to do (Roberts, 2015) - boys’ love manga focused on men’s bodies and sex between men.

Based on the shonen-ai of the 1970s a wider range of Boys’ Love (BL) media, often focusing on uke (‘bottom’) and seme (‘top’) pairings (see Sihombing, 2011), featuring a range of sexual themes including rape, non-consensual sex, BDSM, incest, and underage sex, with a mainly female fan-base and mostly created by women (Mizoguchi, 2003), has gained increasingly wide circulation. Through the mid- to late-1990s Boys’ Love (often called yaoi outside Japan and with a corresponding genre in China called ‘danmei’, see Chao, forthcoming) developed a global market and transnational fandom (Nagaike & Suganuma, 2013; Wood, 2006; Wood, 2013), becoming the site of many amateur online productions.

A focus on men’s bodies has continued to be a popular one for many female consumers of porn. As Alexandra Hambleton (forthcoming) notes, the female-friendly porn films produced by Silk Labo draw on aspects of popular Japanese media culture such as tv dramas with their focus on ‘stressed career women, lonely women who have given up on men, university students looking for love, young couples dating in fashionable or exotic locations’ and J pop ‘idols’ who provide the style template for Silk Labo’s ‘eromen’ performers. Lucy Neville (in press) suggests that women’s pleasures in m/m (male/male) porn are partly explained by the lack of pressure to identify with any of the performers. Participants in her research reported feeling less anxious about the enjoyment of watching male performers, and appreciating what they viewed as the better production values and acting, more experimental and interesting performances, and wider range of body types in m/m porn.

Men holding cats were viewed as less masculine; more neurotic, agreeable, and open; and less dateable

Not the Cat’s Meow? The Impact of Posing with Cats on Female Perceptions of Male Dateability. Lori Kogan and Shelly Volsche. Animals 2020, 10(6), 1007; June 9 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10061007

Simple Summary: People use dating sites to look for both long-term and short-term potential partners. Previous research suggests that the presence of a pet may add to women’s perceptions of male attractiveness and dateability. This study sought to understand to what degree, if any, the presence of a cat has on women’s perceptions of men. Women responded to an online survey and rated photos of men alone and men holding cats on measures of masculinity and personality. Men holding cats were viewed as less masculine; more neurotic, agreeable, and open; and less dateable. These results varied slightly depending whether the women self-identified as a “dog person” or a “cat person.” This study suggests that a closer look at the effects of different companion species on perceived masculinity and dateability is warranted.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate whether men were considered more attractive when posing for a photo alone or holding a cat. Prior research suggests that women view pet owners as more attractive and dateable than non-pet owners; however, this effect was strongest with dog owners. We hypothesized that men posing with cats would be more attractive than those posing alone. Using an online survey, women viewed images of a man posing alone or with a cat and rated the men on the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Big Five Inventory. Women viewed men as less masculine when holding the cat; higher in neuroticism, agreeableness, and openness; and less dateable. These findings suggest that pets continue to play a role in women’s mate choices and dating preferences, but that a closer look at the effects of different species of pets is warranted.

Keywords: dating; cats; personality; sex roles; human–animal interactions

To be or to appear to be: Evidence that authentic people seek to appear authentic rather than be authentic

To be or to appear to be: Evidence that authentic people seek to appear authentic rather than be authentic. William Hart et al. Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 166, 1 November 2020, 110165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110165

Abstract: Self-presentation theory suggests that all people strategically self-present, so it struggles to account for self-proclaimed “authentic” people who are apparently unaware or unconcerned with the impressions they make. But, we addressed whether self-proclaimed authentic people create authentic identities via strategic displays that communicate authentic images but are inconsistent with the self's objective experiences. Participants (N = 240) completed a (bogus) color-gazing task under the presumption that authentic people see colors become more (more-intense condition) or less intense (less-intense condition) while gazing at them. Participants reported perceiving color as more intense in the more-intense condition, but this biased responding—consistent with appearing authentic—was enhanced by trait-authenticity indicators. This biased responding was not open to awareness. Also, participants higher in trait-authenticity indicators reported possessing more authentic characteristics, and mediation evidence traced these reports to their more biased responding on the task. Self-presentation is fundamental to human nature, and this includes “authentic” people.

Keywords: Impression managementSelf-presentationAuthenticitySelf-verification

The Cost of Torture: Evidence from the Spanish Inquisition

The Cost of Torture: Evidence from the Spanish Inquisition. Ron E. Hassner. Security Studies, May 13 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2020.1761441

Abstract: Empirical evidence on contemporary torture is sparse. The archives of the Spanish Inquisition provide a detailed historical source of quantitative and qualitative information about interrogational torture. The inquisition tortured brutally and systematically, willing to torment all who it deemed as withholding evidence. This torture yielded information that was often reliable: witnesses in the torture chamber and witnesses that were not tortured provided corresponding information about collaborators, locations, events, and practices. Nonetheless, inquisitors treated the results of interrogations in the torture chamber with skepticism. This bureaucratized torture stands in stark contrast to the “ticking bomb” philosophy that has motivated US torture policy in the aftermath of 9/11. Evidence from the archives of the Spanish Inquisition suggests torture affords no middle ground: one cannot improvise quick, amateurish, and half-hearted torture sessions, motivated by anger and fear, and hope to extract reliable intelligence.

Rolf Degen summarizing... Meta-analysis of placebo-controlled clinical trials: Psychedelic-assisted therapy achieves larger effects in mental disorders than typical psychopharmacological or psychotherapy interventions

Luoma, Jason B. 2020. “A Meta-analysis of Placebo-controlled Trials of Psychedelic-assisted Therapy.” PsyArXiv. June 12. doi:10.1080/02791072.2020.1769878

Abstract: After a two-decade hiatus in which research on psychedelics was essentially halted, placebo-controlled clinical trials of psychedelic-assisted therapy for mental health conditions have begun to be published. We identified nine randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials of psychedelic-assisted therapy published since 1994. Studies examined psilocybin, LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), ayahuasca (which contains a combination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and harmala monoamine oxidase inhibitor alkaloids), and MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). We compared the standardized mean difference between the experimental and placebo control group at the primary endpoint. Results indicated a significant mean between-groups effect size of 1.21 (Hedges g), which is larger than the typical effect size found in trials of psychopharmacological or psychotherapy interventions. For the three studies that maintained a placebo control through a follow-up assessment, effects were generally maintained at follow-up. Overall, analyses support the efficacy of psychedelic-assisted therapy across four mental health conditions—post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety/depression associated with a life-threatening illness, unipolar depression, and social anxiety among autistic adults. While study quality was high, we identify several areas for improvement regarding the conduct and reporting of trials. Larger trials with more diverse samples are needed to examine possible moderators and mediators of effects, and to establish whether effects are maintained over time.

2000-2018: Sexual inactivity increased among US men such that approximately 1 in 3 men aged 18 to 24 years reported no sexual activity in the past year; inactivity also increased among men & women aged 25-34 years

Trends in Frequency of Sexual Activity and Number of Sexual Partners Among Adults Aged 18 to 44 Years in the US, 2000-2018. Peter Ueda et al. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(6):e203833, June 12, 2020, doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3833

Question  Did the distribution of sexual frequency and number of sexual partners in the past year among US adults change between 2000 and 2018, and was there an association between sexual activity and sociodemographic variables?

Findings  In this survey study of US adults from 2000 to 2018, sexual inactivity increased among men aged 18 to 24 years and 25 to 34 years and women aged 25 to 34 years during the study period, with the increase among men mainly occurring among unmarried individuals. Men with lower income and with part-time or no employment were more likely to be sexually inactive, as were men and women who were students.

Meaning  This study found that sexual inactivity increased among US adults, predominantly younger men, between 2000 and 2018, with potential public health implications.

Abstract
Importance  Sexual relationships are important for well-being and health. Recent trends in sexual activity among US adults are unknown.

Objectives  To examine trends in reported frequency of sexual activity and number of sexual partners by sex and age and the association between measures of sexual activity and sociodemographic variables.

Design, Setting, and Participants  In this survey study, repeat, cross-sectional analyses of participants aged 18 to 44 years from 10 rounds of the General Social Survey (2000-2018), a US nationally representative survey, were performed for men and women separately.

Main Outcomes and Measures  Sexual frequency in the past year (sexual inactivity, once or twice per year, 1-3 times per month, or weekly or more) and number of sexual partners in the past year (0, 1, 2, or ≥3 partners). The association between measures of sexual activity and sociodemographic variables were assessed using logistic regression.

Results  The study population included 4291 men and 5213 women in the analysis of sexual frequency and 4372 men and 5377 women in the analysis of number of sexual partners (mean [SD] age, 31.4 [7.6] years; survey response rate, 59.5%-71.4%). Between 2000-2002 and 2016-2018, the proportion of 18- to 24-year-old individuals who reported having had no sexual activity in the past year increased among men (18.9% vs 30.9%; age-adjusted odds ratio [aOR] for trend across survey periods, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.04-1.39) but not among women (15.1% vs 19.1%; aOR for trend, 1.03; 95% CI, 0.89-1.18). Smaller absolute increases in sexual inactivity were observed among those aged 25 to 34 years for both men (7.0% vs 14.1%; aOR for trend, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.07-1.42) and women (7.0% vs 12.6%; aOR for trend, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.01-1.35) but not among those aged 35 to 44 years. The increase in sexual inactivity coincided with decreases in the proportion reporting weekly or more sexual frequency (men aged 18-24 years: 51.8% vs. 37.4%; aOR for trend, 0.88 [95% CI, 0.79-0.99]; men aged 25-34 years: 65.3% vs 50.3%; aOR for trend, 0.87 [95% CI, 0.81-0.94]; women aged 25-34 years: 66.4% vs. 54.2%; aOR for trend, 0.90 [95% CI, 0.84-0.96]) or 1 sexual partner (men aged 18-24 years: 44.2% vs. 30.0%; aOR for trend, 0.88 [95% CI, 0.80-0.98]; women aged 25-34 years: 79.6% vs 72.7%; aOR for trend, 0.91 [95% CI, 0.84-0.99]) and occurred mainly among unmarried men (unmarried men aged 18-44 years: 16.2% vs 24.4%; aOR for trend, 1.14 [95% CI, 1.04-1.25]). Among married men and women, weekly or more sexual frequency decreased (men: 71.1 % vs 57.7%; aOR for trend, 0.86 [95% CI, 0.79-0.93]; women: 69.1% vs 60.9%; aOR for trend, 0.92 [95% CI, 0.86-0.99]). Men with lower income (aOR for men with an annual income of ≥$50 000 vs $0-$9999, 0.37 [95% CI, 0.15-0.90]) and with part-time (aOR vs full-time employment, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.48-2.93) and no employment (aOR vs full-time employment, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.48-2.93) were more likely to be sexually inactive, as were men (aOR vs full-time employment, 2.94; 95% CI, 2.06-4.21) and women (aOR vs full-time employment, 2.37; 95% CI, 1.68-3.35) who were students.

Conclusions and Relevance  This survey study found that from 2000 to 2018, sexual inactivity increased among US men such that approximately 1 in 3 men aged 18 to 24 years reported no sexual activity in the past year. Sexual inactivity also increased among men and women aged 25 to 34 years. These findings may have implications for public health.

Observers viewed extreme protest actions to be immoral, reducing observers’ emotional connection to the movement and, in turn, reducing identification with and support for the movement

Feinberg, M., Willer, R., & Kovacheff, C. (2020). The activist’s dilemma: Extreme protest actions reduce popular support for social movements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, May 2020. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000230

Abstract: How do protest actions impact public support for social movements? Here we test the claim that extreme protest actions—protest behaviors perceived to be harmful to others, highly disruptive, or both—typically reduce support for social movements. Across 6 experiments, including 3 that were preregistered, participants indicated less support for social movements that used more extreme protest actions. This result obtained across a variety of movements (e.g., animal rights, anti-Trump, anti-abortion) and extreme protest actions (e.g., blocking highways, vandalizing property). Further, in 5 of 6 studies, negative reactions to extreme protest actions also led participants to support the movement’s central cause less, and these effects were largely independent of individuals’ prior ideology or views on the issue. In all studies we found effects were driven by diminished social identification with the movement. In Studies 4–6, serial mediation analyses detailed a more in-depth model: observers viewed extreme protest actions to be immoral, reducing observers’ emotional connection to the movement and, in turn, reducing identification with and support for the movement. Taken together with prior research showing that extreme protest actions can be effective for applying pressure to institutions and raising awareness of movements, these findings suggest an activist’s dilemma, in which the same protest actions that may offer certain benefits are also likely to undermine popular support for social movements.

Visual Features Influence Thought Content in the Absence of Overt Semantic Information

Schertz, Kathryn E., Omid Kardan, and Marc Berman. 2019. “Visual Features Influence Thought Content in the Absence of Overt Semantic Information.” PsyArXiv. September 10. doi:10.31234/osf.io/ptxdr

Abstract: It has recently been shown that the perception of visual features of the environment can influence thought content. Both low-level (e.g., fractalness) and high-level (e.g., presence of water) visual features of the environment can influence thought content, in real-world and experimental settings where these features can make people more reflective and contemplative in their thoughts. It remains to be seen, however, if these visual features retain their influence on thoughts in the absence of overt semantic content, which could indicate a more fundamental mechanism for this effect. In this study, we removed this limitation, by creating scrambled edge versions of images, which maintain edge content from the original images but remove scene identification. Non-straight edge density is one visual feature which has been shown to influence many judgements about objects and landscapes, and has also been associated with thoughts of spirituality. We extend previous findings by showing that non-straight edges retain their influence on the selection of a “Spiritual & Life Journey” topic after scene identification removal. These results strengthen the implication of a causal role for the perception of low-level visual features on the influence of higher-order cognitive function, by demonstrating that in the absence of overt semantic content, low-level features, such as edges, influence cognitive processes.