Why are world religions so concerned with sexual behavior? Jordan W Moon. Current Opinion in Psychology, August 8 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.07.030
Highlights
• Religious beliefs and behavior across the world are closely linked to restricted sexual attitudes and behavior.
• Religions facilitate long-term, committed mating strategies by increasing paternal certainty or by pooling parenting resources.
• Social perceivers view religious individuals as sexually restricted, which has implications for mate choice and for trust.
• These aspects of religion may help explain why certain religions spread successfully, and why religions vary cross-culturally.
Abstract: Many religions emphasize the importance of sexual morality. This article argues mating strategies are central to understanding religion. I highlight the reproductive-religiosity model, which suggests that religious behavior is partly motivated by preferences for restricted mating strategies. I then discuss how religion can lead to reproductive benefits. Specifically, religions can make parenting a relatively safer strategy by increasing paternal certainty, which drives men toward parental investment, and alloparenting, which reduces offspring mortality rates. Next, I discuss the social implications of reproductive-religiosity, including mate selection and trust. Finally, I discuss the potential role of mating strategies in the evolution and cultural evolution of religion and discuss future directions for developing an approach to religion rooted in mating interests.
Tuesday, August 18, 2020
Death anxiety and religious belief relationship is inconsistent & probably near zero; extremely religious & irreligious individuals report lower death anxiety; nonbelievers pursue nonreligious forms of literal immortality
Death anxiety and religion. Jonathan Jong. Current Opinion in Psychology, August 19 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.004
Highlights
• The linear relationship between death anxiety and religious belief is inconsistent and probably averages around zero.
• There is some—albeit limited and culturally specific—evidence for a quadratic relationship between death anxiety and religion, such that extremely religious and irreligious individuals report lower death anxiety than others.
• Experiences with and proximity to death do not consistently predict religious belief.
• Reminders of death probably temporarily strengthen religious belief among believers, but not nonbelievers. Early evidence suggests that nonbelievers pursue nonreligious forms of literal immortality.
Abstract: This review summarises research on the relationship between death anxiety and religiosity. The fear of death is commonly hypothesized as a motivation for religious belief. From a Terror Management Theory perspective, religious beliefs are especially attractive because they offer both literal and symbolic immortality in the form of afterlife beliefs and belonging in venerable systems of value respectively. However, the evidence for any relationship—whether correlational or causal—between death anxiety and religious belief is weak. Indeed, evidence for death anxiety under normal (i.e., non-life threatening) circumstances is surprisingly hard to find. If the fear of death motivates religiosity, it does so subtly, weakly, and sporadically.
Highlights
• The linear relationship between death anxiety and religious belief is inconsistent and probably averages around zero.
• There is some—albeit limited and culturally specific—evidence for a quadratic relationship between death anxiety and religion, such that extremely religious and irreligious individuals report lower death anxiety than others.
• Experiences with and proximity to death do not consistently predict religious belief.
• Reminders of death probably temporarily strengthen religious belief among believers, but not nonbelievers. Early evidence suggests that nonbelievers pursue nonreligious forms of literal immortality.
Abstract: This review summarises research on the relationship between death anxiety and religiosity. The fear of death is commonly hypothesized as a motivation for religious belief. From a Terror Management Theory perspective, religious beliefs are especially attractive because they offer both literal and symbolic immortality in the form of afterlife beliefs and belonging in venerable systems of value respectively. However, the evidence for any relationship—whether correlational or causal—between death anxiety and religious belief is weak. Indeed, evidence for death anxiety under normal (i.e., non-life threatening) circumstances is surprisingly hard to find. If the fear of death motivates religiosity, it does so subtly, weakly, and sporadically.
Self-reported ideology does drift left at liberal arts colleges, but this is explained by a peer effect: students at liberal arts colleges drift more to the left because they have more liberal peers
Why College Students Drift Left: The Stability of Political Identity and Relative Malleability of Issue Positions among College Students. Matthew Woessner, April Kelly-Woessner. PS: Political Science & Politics, August 18 2020. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096520000396
Abstract: In considering the liberalizing effect of college on students’ political values, we argue that political identities—in the form of self-identified ideology or partisanship—are components of social identity and are resistant to change. Using data from the Higher Education Research Institute’s student surveys, we show that what movement in identity does occur is mostly a regression to the mean effect. On several issue positions, however, students move in a more uniform leftward direction. We find that liberal drift on issues is most common among students majoring in the arts and humanities. Self-reported ideology does drift left at liberal arts colleges, but this is explained by a peer effect: students at liberal arts colleges drift more to the left because they have more liberal peers. The results have implications for future research on college student political development, suggesting that attitudinal change can be more easily identified by examining shifts in policy preferences rather than changes in political identity.
Abstract: In considering the liberalizing effect of college on students’ political values, we argue that political identities—in the form of self-identified ideology or partisanship—are components of social identity and are resistant to change. Using data from the Higher Education Research Institute’s student surveys, we show that what movement in identity does occur is mostly a regression to the mean effect. On several issue positions, however, students move in a more uniform leftward direction. We find that liberal drift on issues is most common among students majoring in the arts and humanities. Self-reported ideology does drift left at liberal arts colleges, but this is explained by a peer effect: students at liberal arts colleges drift more to the left because they have more liberal peers. The results have implications for future research on college student political development, suggesting that attitudinal change can be more easily identified by examining shifts in policy preferences rather than changes in political identity.
Common wisdom in paleoanthropology is that Neandertals had bigger brains than recent humans; but only had significantly larger endocranial volume when compared with recent human females
Did Neandertals have large brains? Factors affecting endocranial volume comparisons. Caroline VanSickle Zachary Cofran David Hunt. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, August 16 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24124
Abstract
Objectives: Common wisdom in paleoanthropology is that Neandertals had bigger brains than recent humans. Here we tested the hypothesis that there is no difference in brain size between Neandertals and recent humans while accounting for methodological variation and the makeup of both the Neandertal and recent human samples.
Materials and Methods: We examined endocranial volume (ECV) derived from virtually reconstructed endocasts of 11 Neandertals, six of which had associated femoral head diameters (FHD). Our recent human comparative dataset consisted of virtually measured ECV and associated FHD from 94 recent humans from the Robert J. Terry Anatomical Collection (63 male, 31 female). ECV of Neandertals and recent humans was compared using bootstrap resampling, repeating the analysis for two groupings of Neandertals (all and classic) and for three groupings of recent humans (all, males, and females). To examine brain size scaling, we completed an ordinary least squares regression of log (ECV) against log (FHD) for Neandertals and recent humans.
Results: The results of the bootstrap resampling analyses indicated that Neandertals only had significantly larger ECV when compared with recent human females. The regression between ECV and FHD suggested that Neandertals fall within the range of variation for larger humans.
Discussion: Our results demonstrate that Neandertals do not have uniquely large brains when compared with recent humans. Their brain size falls in the large end of the recent human range of variation, but does not exceed it. These results have implications for future research on Neandertal encephalization.
Abstract
Objectives: Common wisdom in paleoanthropology is that Neandertals had bigger brains than recent humans. Here we tested the hypothesis that there is no difference in brain size between Neandertals and recent humans while accounting for methodological variation and the makeup of both the Neandertal and recent human samples.
Materials and Methods: We examined endocranial volume (ECV) derived from virtually reconstructed endocasts of 11 Neandertals, six of which had associated femoral head diameters (FHD). Our recent human comparative dataset consisted of virtually measured ECV and associated FHD from 94 recent humans from the Robert J. Terry Anatomical Collection (63 male, 31 female). ECV of Neandertals and recent humans was compared using bootstrap resampling, repeating the analysis for two groupings of Neandertals (all and classic) and for three groupings of recent humans (all, males, and females). To examine brain size scaling, we completed an ordinary least squares regression of log (ECV) against log (FHD) for Neandertals and recent humans.
Results: The results of the bootstrap resampling analyses indicated that Neandertals only had significantly larger ECV when compared with recent human females. The regression between ECV and FHD suggested that Neandertals fall within the range of variation for larger humans.
Discussion: Our results demonstrate that Neandertals do not have uniquely large brains when compared with recent humans. Their brain size falls in the large end of the recent human range of variation, but does not exceed it. These results have implications for future research on Neandertal encephalization.
Those who believed they had contracted COVID-19 engaged in greater rates of concealment of their social distancing practices & evaluated concealment more positively compared to those without the virus
Dishonesty during a pandemic: The concealment of COVID-19 information. Alison M O’Connor, Angela D Evans. Journal of Health Psychology, August 17, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320951603
Abstract: Honest disclosures of COVID-19 behaviors and symptoms is critical. A sample of adults on MTurk (N = 451, 20–82 years of age) were asked if they have concealed social distancing practices, COVID-19 symptoms, and quarantine instructions, as well as how they evaluated others’ COVID-19 concealment. Those who believed they had contracted COVID-19 engaged in greater rates of concealment and evaluated concealment more positively compared to those without the virus. As age and communal orientation increased, COVID-19 concealment behaviors decreased, and evaluations of this concealment were rated more negatively. Implications for public health initiatives and psychological theory on concealing health information is discussed.
Keywords: age, community, disclosure, health, lie-telling
Abstract: Honest disclosures of COVID-19 behaviors and symptoms is critical. A sample of adults on MTurk (N = 451, 20–82 years of age) were asked if they have concealed social distancing practices, COVID-19 symptoms, and quarantine instructions, as well as how they evaluated others’ COVID-19 concealment. Those who believed they had contracted COVID-19 engaged in greater rates of concealment and evaluated concealment more positively compared to those without the virus. As age and communal orientation increased, COVID-19 concealment behaviors decreased, and evaluations of this concealment were rated more negatively. Implications for public health initiatives and psychological theory on concealing health information is discussed.
Keywords: age, community, disclosure, health, lie-telling
Participants preferred quality over quantity when choosing for a friend vs for themselves because of heightened self-presentation concerns: People choosing for friends are more concerned about conveying poor taste
The Quality Versus Quantity Trade-Off: Why and When Choices for Self Versus Others Differ. Peggy J. Liu, Ernest Baskin. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, August 17, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220941677
Abstract: The trade-off between quality and quantity pervades many domains of life, including that of making product choices for ourselves and others, whether as gifts or as everyday favors. In five studies (four pre-registered), participants preferred quality over quantity when choosing for a friend versus for themselves. We demonstrate that one reason why this difference in choice for self and other arises is because of heightened self-presentation concerns: People choosing for friends (vs. self) are more concerned about conveying poor taste, thus increasing choice of quality (vs. quantity). Consistent with this process, the effect is mitigated when choosing for a nonjudgmental friend or when choosing for a person whom one does not highly value. Finally, this effect is particular to quality-quantity trade-offs; it does not occur for flavor-quantity trade-offs, indicating that the effect is driven by the quality aspect rather than by the quantity aspect or by cost-per-unit considerations.
Keywords: self–other decision-making, quality, quantity, self-presentation, trade-offs
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Appearing as of bad taste was stronger motivation than appearing as cheap
Abstract: The trade-off between quality and quantity pervades many domains of life, including that of making product choices for ourselves and others, whether as gifts or as everyday favors. In five studies (four pre-registered), participants preferred quality over quantity when choosing for a friend versus for themselves. We demonstrate that one reason why this difference in choice for self and other arises is because of heightened self-presentation concerns: People choosing for friends (vs. self) are more concerned about conveying poor taste, thus increasing choice of quality (vs. quantity). Consistent with this process, the effect is mitigated when choosing for a nonjudgmental friend or when choosing for a person whom one does not highly value. Finally, this effect is particular to quality-quantity trade-offs; it does not occur for flavor-quantity trade-offs, indicating that the effect is driven by the quality aspect rather than by the quantity aspect or by cost-per-unit considerations.
Keywords: self–other decision-making, quality, quantity, self-presentation, trade-offs
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Appearing as of bad taste was stronger motivation than appearing as cheap
Monday, August 17, 2020
Both rivalry and admiration-seeking increased with time on task & were particularly enhanced in individuals high in trait dominance or narcissism; we saw more rivalry when pitted against high-ranked opponents
Szücs, Anna, Katalin Szanto, Jade Adalbert, Aidan G. Wright, Luke Clark, and Alexandre Dombrovski. 2020. “Status, Rivalry and Admiration-seeking in Narcissism and Depression: A Behavioral Study.” PsyArXiv. April 23. doi:10.31234/osf.io/mxve9
Abstract: Humans seek admiration to boost their social rank and engage in rivalry to protect it when fearing defeat. Traits such as narcissism and affective states such as depression are thought to influence perception of rank and motivation for dominance in opposite ways, but evidence of the underlying behavioral mechanisms is scant. We investigated the effects of trait dominance, dimensionally-assessed narcissism, and depression on behavioral responses to social defeat in a rigged video game tournament designed to elicit rivalry (stealing points from opponents) and admiration-seeking (paying for rank). We tested an undergraduate sample (N = 70, mean age = 21.5 years) and a clinical sample of predominantly depressed elderly (N = 85, mean age = 62.6 years). Both rivalry and admiration-seeking increased with time on task and were particularly enhanced in individuals high in trait dominance or narcissism. Participants engaged in more rivalry when pitted against high-ranked opponents, a tendency accentuated by trait dominance and partially mitigated by depression. Our findings provide behavioral evidence that social dominance and narcissism manifest in increased rivalry and admiration-seeking during social contests. Depression does not suppress general competitiveness but selectively inhibits upward-focused rivalry.
Abstract: Humans seek admiration to boost their social rank and engage in rivalry to protect it when fearing defeat. Traits such as narcissism and affective states such as depression are thought to influence perception of rank and motivation for dominance in opposite ways, but evidence of the underlying behavioral mechanisms is scant. We investigated the effects of trait dominance, dimensionally-assessed narcissism, and depression on behavioral responses to social defeat in a rigged video game tournament designed to elicit rivalry (stealing points from opponents) and admiration-seeking (paying for rank). We tested an undergraduate sample (N = 70, mean age = 21.5 years) and a clinical sample of predominantly depressed elderly (N = 85, mean age = 62.6 years). Both rivalry and admiration-seeking increased with time on task and were particularly enhanced in individuals high in trait dominance or narcissism. Participants engaged in more rivalry when pitted against high-ranked opponents, a tendency accentuated by trait dominance and partially mitigated by depression. Our findings provide behavioral evidence that social dominance and narcissism manifest in increased rivalry and admiration-seeking during social contests. Depression does not suppress general competitiveness but selectively inhibits upward-focused rivalry.
The Threat of Symbolic Incompatibility Looms Larger Than the Threat of Status Rivalry: Symbolic Threat from Others Determines Feelings for Them More Than Status Threat
Bai, Max H., and Jeremy C. Simon. 2020. “The Threat of Symbolic Incompatibility Looms Larger Than the Threat of Status Rivalry: Symbolic Threat from Others Determines Feelings for Them More Than Status Threat.” PsyArXiv. August 15. doi:10.31234/osf.io/7wux6
Abstract: Evidence from three studies shows that the perceived symbolic threat from a group, more so than the perceived status threat, determines how people feel about it (i.e., how much they like the group). Study 1 shows that Whites’ perception of symbolic threat from racial minorities, but not status threat, predicts Whites’ favorability toward racial minorities. Using a 2×2 experiment, Study 2 shows that hypothetical immigrants described as capable of posing a status threat to Americans (versus not) or capable of posing a symbolic threat to Americans (versus not) are evaluated based on their potential symbolic threat, but not their potential status threat. Finally, the results from Study 2 replicated in another 2×2 experiment where American participants evaluated a hypothetical foreign country. Thus, the perceived symbolic threat from a group, more so than the perceived status threat, determines people’s overall attitude toward them.
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Realistic threat refers to the types of threat that imperil an in-group’s political and economic power, material well-being, and very existence.
Symbolic threats, meanwhile, originate from perceived differences in world values, morality, or beliefs between the in-group and out-groups. In other words, symbolic threats may portend conflict due to intangible value incompatibilities.
Abstract: Evidence from three studies shows that the perceived symbolic threat from a group, more so than the perceived status threat, determines how people feel about it (i.e., how much they like the group). Study 1 shows that Whites’ perception of symbolic threat from racial minorities, but not status threat, predicts Whites’ favorability toward racial minorities. Using a 2×2 experiment, Study 2 shows that hypothetical immigrants described as capable of posing a status threat to Americans (versus not) or capable of posing a symbolic threat to Americans (versus not) are evaluated based on their potential symbolic threat, but not their potential status threat. Finally, the results from Study 2 replicated in another 2×2 experiment where American participants evaluated a hypothetical foreign country. Thus, the perceived symbolic threat from a group, more so than the perceived status threat, determines people’s overall attitude toward them.
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Realistic threat refers to the types of threat that imperil an in-group’s political and economic power, material well-being, and very existence.
Symbolic threats, meanwhile, originate from perceived differences in world values, morality, or beliefs between the in-group and out-groups. In other words, symbolic threats may portend conflict due to intangible value incompatibilities.
There is a consistent, substantial, & replicable connection between deep‐seated pathogen‐avoidance motivations & socially conservative party preferences due to individual differences in disgust sensitivity
The Behavioral Immune System Shapes Partisan Preferences in Modern Democracies: Disgust Sensitivity Predicts Voting for Socially Conservative Parties. Lene Aarøe Michael Bang Petersen Kevin Arceneaux. Political Psychology, August 17 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12665
Abstract: While there is growing interest in the relationship between pathogen‐avoidance motivations and partisanship, the extant findings remain contradictory and suffer from a number of methodological limitations related to measurement and internal and external validity. We address these limitations and marshal the most complete test to date of the relationship between the behavioral immune system and partisanship, as indexed by which party people identify with and vote for. Using a unique research design, including multiple well‐powered, nationally representative samples from the United States and Denmark collected in election and nonelection contexts, our study is the first to establish in cross‐national data a consistent, substantial, and replicable connection between deep‐seated pathogen‐avoidance motivations and socially conservative party preferences across multiple validated measures of individual differences in disgust sensitivity and using large representative samples. We explore the relative contribution of the pathogen‐avoidance model and sexual strategies for accounting for this relationship.
Abstract: While there is growing interest in the relationship between pathogen‐avoidance motivations and partisanship, the extant findings remain contradictory and suffer from a number of methodological limitations related to measurement and internal and external validity. We address these limitations and marshal the most complete test to date of the relationship between the behavioral immune system and partisanship, as indexed by which party people identify with and vote for. Using a unique research design, including multiple well‐powered, nationally representative samples from the United States and Denmark collected in election and nonelection contexts, our study is the first to establish in cross‐national data a consistent, substantial, and replicable connection between deep‐seated pathogen‐avoidance motivations and socially conservative party preferences across multiple validated measures of individual differences in disgust sensitivity and using large representative samples. We explore the relative contribution of the pathogen‐avoidance model and sexual strategies for accounting for this relationship.
Germany: Like-minded discussions increase one’s likelihood to perceive media as hostile; yet, only among those more politically engaged & ideologically on the left
Whose media are hostile? The spillover effect of interpersonal discussions on media bias perceptions. Laia Castro, David Nicolas Hopmann and Lilach Nir. Communications, 000010151520190140, Aug 11 2020. https://doi.org/10.1515/commun-2019-0140
Abstract: Since Eveland and Shah (2003) published their seminal study on the impact of social networks on media bias perceptions in the US, little has been researched about the interpersonal antecedents of hostile media perceptions. In this study we address this gap by investigating the role of safe, or like-minded, political discussions on individuals’ likelihood to perceive media as hostile. We use survey data from more than 5,000 individuals in Germany. Our findings reveal that like-minded discussions increase one’s likelihood to perceive media as hostile; yet, only among those more politically engaged and ideologically on the left. The significance and theoretical implications of the results are discussed in the concluding section.
Keywords: hostile media perceptions; interpersonal communication; ideology; survey; like-minded
Abstract: Since Eveland and Shah (2003) published their seminal study on the impact of social networks on media bias perceptions in the US, little has been researched about the interpersonal antecedents of hostile media perceptions. In this study we address this gap by investigating the role of safe, or like-minded, political discussions on individuals’ likelihood to perceive media as hostile. We use survey data from more than 5,000 individuals in Germany. Our findings reveal that like-minded discussions increase one’s likelihood to perceive media as hostile; yet, only among those more politically engaged and ideologically on the left. The significance and theoretical implications of the results are discussed in the concluding section.
Keywords: hostile media perceptions; interpersonal communication; ideology; survey; like-minded
What Processes Are Disrupted During the Attentional Blink?
Zivony, Alon, and Dominique Lamy. 2020. “What Processes Are Disrupted During the Attentional Blink? An Integrative Review of Event-related Potentials Research.” PsyArXiv. August 15. doi:10.31234/osf.io/epfbt
Abstract: Reporting the second of two targets is impaired when these appear in close succession, a phenomenon known as the attentional blink (AB). Despite decades of research, what mechanisms are affected by the AB remains unclear. Specifically, two central issues remain open: Does the AB disrupt attentional processes or reflect a structural limitation in working memory encoding? Does it disrupt perceptual processing or only post-perceptual processes? We address these questions by reviewing event-related potentials (ERP) studies of the AB. The findings reveal that the core influence of the AB is by disrupting attentional engagement (indexed by N2pc). As a consequence, while early processing (indexed by P1\N1) is spared, semantic processing (indexed by N400) and working memory (WM) encoding (indexed by P3b) are compromised: minor disruptions to attentional engagement weaken but do not eliminate semantic processing, whereas they prevent encoding in WM. Thus, semantic processing can survive the blink, whereas encoding in WM does not. To accommodate these conclusions, we suggest a Disrupted Engagement and Perception (DEaP) account of the attentional blink.
Abstract: Reporting the second of two targets is impaired when these appear in close succession, a phenomenon known as the attentional blink (AB). Despite decades of research, what mechanisms are affected by the AB remains unclear. Specifically, two central issues remain open: Does the AB disrupt attentional processes or reflect a structural limitation in working memory encoding? Does it disrupt perceptual processing or only post-perceptual processes? We address these questions by reviewing event-related potentials (ERP) studies of the AB. The findings reveal that the core influence of the AB is by disrupting attentional engagement (indexed by N2pc). As a consequence, while early processing (indexed by P1\N1) is spared, semantic processing (indexed by N400) and working memory (WM) encoding (indexed by P3b) are compromised: minor disruptions to attentional engagement weaken but do not eliminate semantic processing, whereas they prevent encoding in WM. Thus, semantic processing can survive the blink, whereas encoding in WM does not. To accommodate these conclusions, we suggest a Disrupted Engagement and Perception (DEaP) account of the attentional blink.
Observers underestimated the egocentric distances when there was a fence on the ground surface relative to the no-fence condition; the effect of widely spaced thick fences was larger than that of narrowly spaced ones
Inaccurate Space Perception Seeing Through Fences. Bo Dong et al. Perception, August 16, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/0301006620946525
Abstract: According to the sequential surface integration process hypothesis, the fine near-ground-surface representation and the homogeneous ground surface play a vital role in the representation of the ground surface. When an occluding box or opaque wall is placed between observers and targets, observers underestimate egocentric distance. However, in our daily life, many obstacles are perforated and cover the ground surface and targets simultaneously (e.g., fences). Humans see and observe through fences. The images of these fences and targets, projected onto observers’ retinas, overlap each other. This study aims to explore the effects of perforated obstacles (i.e., fences) on space perception. The results showed that observers underestimated the egocentric distances when there was a fence on the ground surface relative to the no-fence condition, and the effect of widely spaced thick wood fences was larger than that of narrowly spaced thin iron fences. We further demonstrated that this effect was quite robust when the target size had a visual angle of 1°, 2°, or 4° in three virtual reality experiments. This study may add support for the notion that the sequential surface integration process hypothesis is applicable even if the obstacle is perforated and covers the target.
Keywords: space perception, the ground-surface representation, SSIP hypothesis, fences, egocentric distance perception
Abstract: According to the sequential surface integration process hypothesis, the fine near-ground-surface representation and the homogeneous ground surface play a vital role in the representation of the ground surface. When an occluding box or opaque wall is placed between observers and targets, observers underestimate egocentric distance. However, in our daily life, many obstacles are perforated and cover the ground surface and targets simultaneously (e.g., fences). Humans see and observe through fences. The images of these fences and targets, projected onto observers’ retinas, overlap each other. This study aims to explore the effects of perforated obstacles (i.e., fences) on space perception. The results showed that observers underestimated the egocentric distances when there was a fence on the ground surface relative to the no-fence condition, and the effect of widely spaced thick wood fences was larger than that of narrowly spaced thin iron fences. We further demonstrated that this effect was quite robust when the target size had a visual angle of 1°, 2°, or 4° in three virtual reality experiments. This study may add support for the notion that the sequential surface integration process hypothesis is applicable even if the obstacle is perforated and covers the target.
Keywords: space perception, the ground-surface representation, SSIP hypothesis, fences, egocentric distance perception
Sunday, August 16, 2020
How does meaning come to mind when hearing a word? Principles of Semantic Processing include that the relationship between form & meaning is not so arbitrary; that more semantic richness is better, & that experience matters
Pexman, Penny M. 2020. “How Does Meaning Come to Mind? Four Broad Principles of Semantic Processing.” PsyArXiv. August 16. doi:10.31234/osf.io/scwau
Abstract: When we see or hear a word, we can rapidly bring its meaning to mind. The process that underlies this ability is quite complex. Over the past two decades, considerable progress has been made towards understanding this process. In this paper, I offer four broad principles of semantic processing derived from lexical-semantic research. The first principle is that the relationship between form and meaning is not so arbitrary and I explore that by describing efforts to understand the relationship between form and meaning, highlighting advances from my own lab on the topics of sound symbolism and iconicity. The second principle is that more is better and I summarize previous research on semantic richness effects, and how those effects reveal the nature of semantic representation. The third principle is the many and various properties of abstract concepts. I point to abstract meaning as a challenge for some theories of semantic representation. In response to that challenge, I outline what has been learned about how those meanings are acquired and represented. The fourth principle is that experience matters, and I summarize research on the dynamic and experience-driven nature of semantic processing, detailing ways in which processing is modified by both immediate and long-term context. Finally, I describe some next steps for lexical-semantic research.
Abstract: When we see or hear a word, we can rapidly bring its meaning to mind. The process that underlies this ability is quite complex. Over the past two decades, considerable progress has been made towards understanding this process. In this paper, I offer four broad principles of semantic processing derived from lexical-semantic research. The first principle is that the relationship between form and meaning is not so arbitrary and I explore that by describing efforts to understand the relationship between form and meaning, highlighting advances from my own lab on the topics of sound symbolism and iconicity. The second principle is that more is better and I summarize previous research on semantic richness effects, and how those effects reveal the nature of semantic representation. The third principle is the many and various properties of abstract concepts. I point to abstract meaning as a challenge for some theories of semantic representation. In response to that challenge, I outline what has been learned about how those meanings are acquired and represented. The fourth principle is that experience matters, and I summarize research on the dynamic and experience-driven nature of semantic processing, detailing ways in which processing is modified by both immediate and long-term context. Finally, I describe some next steps for lexical-semantic research.
Anxiety & compulsivity have been linked to a belief that the environment is uncontrollable; we lack a mechanistic explanation of how such a belief might form; seems a difficulty in building probabilistic internal maps between actions & environmental states
Sharp, Paul B., Raymond J. Dolan, and Eran Eldar. 2020. “Cognitive Map Learning Is Disrupted in Compulsivity and Anxious Arousal.” PsyArXiv. June 14. doi:10.31234/osf.io/x29jq
Abstract: Both anxiety and compulsivity have been linked to a belief that the environment is uncontrollable. We lack a mechanistic explanation regarding how such a belief might form. Here, we propose a novel hypothesis that individuals with anxiety and compulsivity have difficulty in building probabilistic internal maps between actions and environmental states, specifically state transition learning. To address this hypothesis, we recruited a large (n=174) online sample of individuals exhibiting a range of psychopathology. We created a novel one-step revaluation task that isolated state transition learning from other processes with which it is typically confounded in computational psychiatry investigations. Results from the one-step revaluation paradigm demonstrated that both compulsivity and anxious arousal are associated with a basic disruption in state transition learning. To strengthen mechanistic inferences from this online study we developed a computational model of state transition learning and tested its validity by fitting it to a separate publicly available (n=1413) sequential decision-making data. In this independent dataset we show that compulsivity-related disruptions in state transition learning arise out of overly fast updating of state transitions estimates. We suggest that disrupted state transition learning is a promising computational phenotype that may shed light on the genesis of these pathologies as well as provide a potential target for prevention and intervention. Future work can determine if a deficit in transition learning represents a cause, consequence, or maintenance factor in compulsivity and anxious arousal.
Abstract: Both anxiety and compulsivity have been linked to a belief that the environment is uncontrollable. We lack a mechanistic explanation regarding how such a belief might form. Here, we propose a novel hypothesis that individuals with anxiety and compulsivity have difficulty in building probabilistic internal maps between actions and environmental states, specifically state transition learning. To address this hypothesis, we recruited a large (n=174) online sample of individuals exhibiting a range of psychopathology. We created a novel one-step revaluation task that isolated state transition learning from other processes with which it is typically confounded in computational psychiatry investigations. Results from the one-step revaluation paradigm demonstrated that both compulsivity and anxious arousal are associated with a basic disruption in state transition learning. To strengthen mechanistic inferences from this online study we developed a computational model of state transition learning and tested its validity by fitting it to a separate publicly available (n=1413) sequential decision-making data. In this independent dataset we show that compulsivity-related disruptions in state transition learning arise out of overly fast updating of state transitions estimates. We suggest that disrupted state transition learning is a promising computational phenotype that may shed light on the genesis of these pathologies as well as provide a potential target for prevention and intervention. Future work can determine if a deficit in transition learning represents a cause, consequence, or maintenance factor in compulsivity and anxious arousal.
From ‘it Has Stopped Our Lives’ to ‘spending More Time Together Has Strengthened Bonds': The Varied Experiences of Australian Families During COVID-19
Evans, Subhadra, Antonina Mikocka-Walus, Anna Klas, Lisa Olive, Emma Sciberras, Gery Karantzas, and Elizabeth Westrupp. 2020. “From ‘it Has Stopped Our Lives’ to ‘spending More Time Together Has Strengthened Bonds': The Varied Experiences of Australian Families During COVID-19.” PsyArXiv. August 17. doi:10.31234/osf.io/a9jhe
Abstract: The present study uses a qualitative approach to understand the impact of COVID-19 on family life. Australian parents of children aged 0-18 years were recruited via social media between April 8th and April 28th, 2020, when Australians were experiencing social distancing/isolation measures for the first time. As part of a larger survey, participants were asked to respond via an open-ended question about how COVID-19 had impacted their family. A total of 2,130 parents were included and represented a diverse range of family backgrounds. Inductive template thematic analysis was used to understand patterns of meaning across the texts. Six themes were derived from the data, including: 'Boredom, depression and suicide: A spectrum of emotion'; 'Families are missing the things that keep them healthy'; 'Changing family relationships: The push pull of intimacy'; 'The unprecedented demands of parenthood'; 'The unequal burden of COVID-19'; and 'Holding on to positivity'. Overall, the findings demonstrated a breadth of responses. Messages around loss and challenge were predominant, with many families reporting mental health difficulties and strained family relationships. However, not all families were negatively impacted by the restrictions, with some families reporting positive benefits and meaning, including opportunities for strengthening relationships, finding new hobbies, and developing positive characteristics such as appreciation, gratitude and tolerance
Abstract: The present study uses a qualitative approach to understand the impact of COVID-19 on family life. Australian parents of children aged 0-18 years were recruited via social media between April 8th and April 28th, 2020, when Australians were experiencing social distancing/isolation measures for the first time. As part of a larger survey, participants were asked to respond via an open-ended question about how COVID-19 had impacted their family. A total of 2,130 parents were included and represented a diverse range of family backgrounds. Inductive template thematic analysis was used to understand patterns of meaning across the texts. Six themes were derived from the data, including: 'Boredom, depression and suicide: A spectrum of emotion'; 'Families are missing the things that keep them healthy'; 'Changing family relationships: The push pull of intimacy'; 'The unprecedented demands of parenthood'; 'The unequal burden of COVID-19'; and 'Holding on to positivity'. Overall, the findings demonstrated a breadth of responses. Messages around loss and challenge were predominant, with many families reporting mental health difficulties and strained family relationships. However, not all families were negatively impacted by the restrictions, with some families reporting positive benefits and meaning, including opportunities for strengthening relationships, finding new hobbies, and developing positive characteristics such as appreciation, gratitude and tolerance
Gratitude promotes prosociality and long-term reciprocal relationships; the Dark Triad, specifically psychopathy and Machiavellianism, is negatively associated with trait gratitude
Puthillam, Arathy, Sampada Karandikar, Hansika Kapoor, and Aneree Parekh. 2020. “Gratitude Blindness: How Does the Dark Triad Experience Gratitude?.” PsyArXiv. August 7. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110309
Abstract: Gratitude promotes prosociality and long-term reciprocal relationships. The Dark Triad is associated with maladaptive interactions in their social and interpersonal relationships. The present study aimed at understanding whether these individuals experience gratitude at state and trait levels, when presented with situations that differentially benefit them. The Dark Triad, specifically psychopathy and Machiavellianism, is negatively associated with trait gratitude. In situations where others are uncooperative towards them, individuals with Dark Triad traits, specifically Machiavellianism and narcissism, report poorer state gratitude. Implications are discussed, particularly in light of the Dark Triad as a defector personality hindering reciprocal altruism.
Abstract: Gratitude promotes prosociality and long-term reciprocal relationships. The Dark Triad is associated with maladaptive interactions in their social and interpersonal relationships. The present study aimed at understanding whether these individuals experience gratitude at state and trait levels, when presented with situations that differentially benefit them. The Dark Triad, specifically psychopathy and Machiavellianism, is negatively associated with trait gratitude. In situations where others are uncooperative towards them, individuals with Dark Triad traits, specifically Machiavellianism and narcissism, report poorer state gratitude. Implications are discussed, particularly in light of the Dark Triad as a defector personality hindering reciprocal altruism.
South India: Consistent with Western findings, environmental stress appeared to hasten sexual debut, decrease self-regulation & educational attainment, & increase current environmental stress in the peri-urban sample
Environmental stress and human life history strategy development in rural and peri-urban South India. George B. Richardson et al. Evolution and Human Behavior, Volume 41, Issue 3, May 2020, Pages 244-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.03.003
Abstract: Few studies have examined the role of early vs. later environment in the development of life history (LH) strategies, whether age at sexual debut mediates LH development, or whether LH indicators contribute to environmental stress in adulthood. In the current study, we addressed these gaps cross-culturally using data from Jenu Kurubas who live in the rural outskirts of Mysore (n = 133), India, and mixed-caste peri-urban residents in Mysore city (n = 222). Research took place from October 2016–July 2017. First, participants engaged in semi-structured interviews to formulate quantitative measures of current environmental stress (n = 60). Next, participants (n = 355) completed structured questionnaires that measured demographics; early and current environmental stress; and LH indicators including age at sexual debut, facets of impulsivity, education, and number of children. Structural equation modeling was used to test for the developmental cascade reported in Western studies of psychosocial acceleration (e.g., indirect effect of early environmental stress on number of children through age at sexual debut). Consistent with Western findings, environmental stress appeared to hasten sexual debut, decrease self-regulation and educational attainment, and increase current environmental stress in the peri-urban sample. Early environmental stress forecasted younger age at sexual debut in both samples; however, no other effects of early environmental stress nor any associations with current environmental stress were consistent between samples. Although age at sexual debut appeared to translate early environmental stress into greater numbers of children and current environmental stress in the peri-urban and rural samples, respectively, it was associated with different outcomes between the samples and forecasted adult environment only in the rural sample. Taken together, our findings indicate more research is needed to determine whether the developmental cascade suggested by most applications of LH theory to humans generalizes across cultures and rural and peri-urban environments.
Keywords: Life history theoryEnvironmentImpulsivitySexual debutIndia
Abstract: Few studies have examined the role of early vs. later environment in the development of life history (LH) strategies, whether age at sexual debut mediates LH development, or whether LH indicators contribute to environmental stress in adulthood. In the current study, we addressed these gaps cross-culturally using data from Jenu Kurubas who live in the rural outskirts of Mysore (n = 133), India, and mixed-caste peri-urban residents in Mysore city (n = 222). Research took place from October 2016–July 2017. First, participants engaged in semi-structured interviews to formulate quantitative measures of current environmental stress (n = 60). Next, participants (n = 355) completed structured questionnaires that measured demographics; early and current environmental stress; and LH indicators including age at sexual debut, facets of impulsivity, education, and number of children. Structural equation modeling was used to test for the developmental cascade reported in Western studies of psychosocial acceleration (e.g., indirect effect of early environmental stress on number of children through age at sexual debut). Consistent with Western findings, environmental stress appeared to hasten sexual debut, decrease self-regulation and educational attainment, and increase current environmental stress in the peri-urban sample. Early environmental stress forecasted younger age at sexual debut in both samples; however, no other effects of early environmental stress nor any associations with current environmental stress were consistent between samples. Although age at sexual debut appeared to translate early environmental stress into greater numbers of children and current environmental stress in the peri-urban and rural samples, respectively, it was associated with different outcomes between the samples and forecasted adult environment only in the rural sample. Taken together, our findings indicate more research is needed to determine whether the developmental cascade suggested by most applications of LH theory to humans generalizes across cultures and rural and peri-urban environments.
Keywords: Life history theoryEnvironmentImpulsivitySexual debutIndia
Cultural and reproductive success and the causes of war: A Yanomamö perspective
Cultural and reproductive success and the causes of war: A Yanomamö perspective. Raymond Hames. Evolution and Human Behavior, Volume 41, Issue 3, May 2020, Pages 183-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.02.008
Abstract: Inter-group competition including warfare is posited to be a key force in human evolution (Alexander, 1990; Choi & Bowles, 2007; Wrangham, 1999). Chagnon's research on the Yanomamö is seminal to understanding warfare in the types of societies characteristic of human evolutionary history. Chagnon's empirical analyses of the hypothesis that competition for status or cultural success is linked to reproduction (Irons, 1979) and warfare attracted considerable controversy. Potential causal factors include “blood revenge”, mate competition, resource shortages or inequality, and peace-making institutions (Boehm, 1984; Keeley's (1997); Meggitt, 1977; Wiessner and Pupu, 2012; Wrangham et al., 2006). Here we highlight Chagnon's contributions to the study of human warfare.
Abstract: Inter-group competition including warfare is posited to be a key force in human evolution (Alexander, 1990; Choi & Bowles, 2007; Wrangham, 1999). Chagnon's research on the Yanomamö is seminal to understanding warfare in the types of societies characteristic of human evolutionary history. Chagnon's empirical analyses of the hypothesis that competition for status or cultural success is linked to reproduction (Irons, 1979) and warfare attracted considerable controversy. Potential causal factors include “blood revenge”, mate competition, resource shortages or inequality, and peace-making institutions (Boehm, 1984; Keeley's (1997); Meggitt, 1977; Wiessner and Pupu, 2012; Wrangham et al., 2006). Here we highlight Chagnon's contributions to the study of human warfare.
Welfare trade-off ratios (the computational element which dictate our willingness to benefit others at some cost to ourselves) & moral elevation (social emotion triggered by observing third parties behaving benevolently)
Moral elevation: Indications of functional integration with welfare trade-off calibration and estimation mechanisms. Amy Monroe. Evolution and Human Behavior, Volume 41, Issue 4, July 2020, Pages 293-302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.05.002
Abstract: Moral elevation is a positive social emotion, which is triggered by observing third parties behaving benevolently, and which in turn triggers a motivation to behave benevolently towards others in general. It has been suggested that this relatively obscure emotion may be the output of a naturally selected cognitive adaptation which functions to help us retain our position in the competition for access to beneficial social relationships. This suggestion is here interpreted within the framework of ‘recalibrational emotions’. This framework offers the computational vocabulary necessary to understand how mental adaptations governing affect and motivation perform their functions at the cognitive level. Parallels are drawn between the suggested function and known phenomenological attributes of moral elevation, and the recently explicated functional operation of other social emotions (such as anger, guilt, and gratitude). Specifically, these other social emotions are thought to share a common computational pathway; recalibration of our welfare trade-off ratios (WTRs). WTRs are the computational element which dictate our willingness to benefit others at some cost to ourselves.
A series of studies was conducted to explore whether a reliable relationship exists between moral elevation and WTRs. The results suggest that elevation does have a positive recalibrational effect on our WTRs, and that it may also be functionally integrated with a mental mechanism designed by natural selection to estimate the WTRs of other social actors.
Keywords: Moral elevationWelfare trade-off ratiosCompetitive altruismEmotion
Abstract: Moral elevation is a positive social emotion, which is triggered by observing third parties behaving benevolently, and which in turn triggers a motivation to behave benevolently towards others in general. It has been suggested that this relatively obscure emotion may be the output of a naturally selected cognitive adaptation which functions to help us retain our position in the competition for access to beneficial social relationships. This suggestion is here interpreted within the framework of ‘recalibrational emotions’. This framework offers the computational vocabulary necessary to understand how mental adaptations governing affect and motivation perform their functions at the cognitive level. Parallels are drawn between the suggested function and known phenomenological attributes of moral elevation, and the recently explicated functional operation of other social emotions (such as anger, guilt, and gratitude). Specifically, these other social emotions are thought to share a common computational pathway; recalibration of our welfare trade-off ratios (WTRs). WTRs are the computational element which dictate our willingness to benefit others at some cost to ourselves.
A series of studies was conducted to explore whether a reliable relationship exists between moral elevation and WTRs. The results suggest that elevation does have a positive recalibrational effect on our WTRs, and that it may also be functionally integrated with a mental mechanism designed by natural selection to estimate the WTRs of other social actors.
Keywords: Moral elevationWelfare trade-off ratiosCompetitive altruismEmotion
Impulsive behavior is not always adaptive in harsh & unpredictable conditions, it depends on the exact definitions of harshness, unpredictability, & impulsivity; may be adaptive when resource encounters are likely to be interrupted
Is impulsive behavior adaptive in harsh and unpredictable environments? A formal model
Jesse Fenneman, Willem E. Frankenhuis. Evolution and Human Behavior, Volume 41, Issue 4, July 2020, Pages 261-273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.02.005
Abstract: Evolutionary social scientists have argued that impulsive behavior is adaptive in harsh and unpredictable conditions. Is this true? This paper presents a mathematical model that computes the optimal level of impulsivity in environments varying in harshness and unpredictability. We focus on information impulsivity, i.e., choosing to act without gathering or considering information about the consequences of one's actions. We explore two notions of harshness: the mean level of resources (e.g., food) and the mean level of extrinsic events (e.g., being the victim of a random attack). We explore three notions of unpredictability: variation in resources, variation in extrinsic events, and the interruption risk (the chance that a resource becomes unavailable). We also explore interactions between harshness and unpredictability. Our general model suggests four broad conclusions. First, impulsive behavior is not always adaptive in harsh and unpredictable conditions; rather, this depends on the exact definitions of harshness, unpredictability, and impulsivity. Second, impulsive behavior may be adaptive in environments in which the quality of resources is low or high, but is less likely to be adaptive when their quality is moderate. Third, impulsive behavior may be adaptive when resource encounters are likely to be interrupted. Fourth, extrinsic events have only a limited effect on whether impulsive behavior is adaptive. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research, consider limitations, and suggest future directions.
Keywords: ImpulsivityHarshnessUnpredictabilityBayesian inferenceLife history theoryFormal model
Jesse Fenneman, Willem E. Frankenhuis. Evolution and Human Behavior, Volume 41, Issue 4, July 2020, Pages 261-273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.02.005
Abstract: Evolutionary social scientists have argued that impulsive behavior is adaptive in harsh and unpredictable conditions. Is this true? This paper presents a mathematical model that computes the optimal level of impulsivity in environments varying in harshness and unpredictability. We focus on information impulsivity, i.e., choosing to act without gathering or considering information about the consequences of one's actions. We explore two notions of harshness: the mean level of resources (e.g., food) and the mean level of extrinsic events (e.g., being the victim of a random attack). We explore three notions of unpredictability: variation in resources, variation in extrinsic events, and the interruption risk (the chance that a resource becomes unavailable). We also explore interactions between harshness and unpredictability. Our general model suggests four broad conclusions. First, impulsive behavior is not always adaptive in harsh and unpredictable conditions; rather, this depends on the exact definitions of harshness, unpredictability, and impulsivity. Second, impulsive behavior may be adaptive in environments in which the quality of resources is low or high, but is less likely to be adaptive when their quality is moderate. Third, impulsive behavior may be adaptive when resource encounters are likely to be interrupted. Fourth, extrinsic events have only a limited effect on whether impulsive behavior is adaptive. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research, consider limitations, and suggest future directions.
Keywords: ImpulsivityHarshnessUnpredictabilityBayesian inferenceLife history theoryFormal model
4 Discussion
Evolutionary social scientists have argued that impulsive behavior is adaptive in harsh and unpredictable environments. We have developed a formal model that explores how commonly used definitions of harshness and unpredictability affect the optimal level of information impulsivity. Our results show that this hypothesis is not universally true, but rather, depends on the exact definition of harshness, unpredictability, and impulsivity; harsh and unpredictable environments can favor high or low levels of impulsivity, or have no effect on impulsive behavior.
Our model suggests five conclusions about how harshness and unpredictability shape the optimal level of impulsive behavior. Two of these are also supported by existing models: individuals should sample more cues when the prior uncertainty of resources is higher (i.e., when the variance in resource quality is high); and individuals that are close to a somatic threshold (starvation or satiation) should sample more information, regardless of the state of their environment. Three other findings may be novel. First, impulsive behavior is adaptive when the resource quality is either low or high, but not when it is moderate. Second, impulsive behavior is almost always adaptive when resources are likely to be interrupted. Models of temporal impulsivity often find that temporal impulsivity increases as interruptions become more common. However, to our knowledge, this is the first model that finds similar effects on information impulsivity. Third, the mean and variance of extrinsic events only affect impulsivity when agents are in a very bad or a very good state. This is surprising because harshness is commonly defined (although not typically measured, see section 1.2.1) as a high rate in which external factors cause disability and death.
The conclusion that harshness and unpredictability can have multiple influences on impulsivity highlights the need for clear and explicit definitions. Although different interpretations of harshness and unpredictability are typically empirically related (e.g., resource scarcity can increase violence and disease), they are conceptually different. An environment can simultaneously be harsh and unpredictable in some sense, but affluent and predictable in others. Empirical support for the adaptive impulsivity hypothesis is mixed (see section 1.1). This might be partly due to the jingle fallacy, the erroneous belief that two constructs are the same because they have the same name. However, if empirical results depend on what notion of harshness, unpredictability, or impulsivity is measured, findings from one study might not generalize to other studies or to other populations. This makes it difficult for studies to incrementally build upon each other, stifling academic progress. We therefore strongly recommend that future studies use explicit, ideally formal, definitions of harshness and unpredictability. Such explicit definitions can help improve empirical measurements of harshness and unpredictability. For instance, future measurements of harshness could explicitly differentiate between resource scarcity and high levels of extrinsic morbidity-mortality.
4.1. Formalizing life history theory in the social sciences
Our model also contributes to a larger conversation about how to use life history theory in evolutionary social sciences. A recent bibliometric analysis shows that in the previous decade the life history literature has fragmented into different clusters with dividing lines between the evolutionary psychology, evolutionary anthropology, and non-human animal literatures (Nettle & Frankenhuis, 2019). Alarmingly, studies within the evolutionary social science cluster have few ties with formal models of life history theory. These weak connections are problematic, because references are sometimes used in support of claims that are different, absent, or even contradictory to the source model. One example is the proposed fast-slow continuum. Although its existence is often described as a fundamental prediction of life history theory (Ellis et al., 2009), formal support for the fast-slow continuum is limited and mixed (Mathot & Frankenhuis, 2018; Zietsch & Sidari, 2019). Some models show that harsh and unpredictable conditions can favor slow life histories (e.g., Abrams, 1993, Baldini, 2015). Similarly, our model shows that one kind of impulsivity, which is often viewed as part of a fast life history, is not necessarily favored in harsh and unpredictable environments.
4.2. Empirical predictions, limitations, and future directions
All models are simplifications of reality (Smaldino, 2017). However, they differ in whether they are general or specific (Houston & McNamara, 2005; Parker & Smith, 1990). The goal of a general model is to study abstract qualitative patterns. For instance, a prisoner's dilemma model captures the logic of cooperation and defection between two rational players – it does not matter whether the players are people, companies, or rivaling states. The parameters of general models are often difficult to operationalize, predict, and measure. Specific models study the dynamics of a particular real-world system. The parameters of these models are frequently based on empirical data, and these models might provide predictions. We have presented a general model; our goal was to provide a formalization of the adaptive impulsivity hypothesis. As such, we made simplifying assumptions. These assumptions allowed us to explore a decision problem in depth, facilitating theoretic insight about the ways in which key variables interact with each other. Simple models are well suited to producing such insights, but at a cost to realism (Levins, 1968). We think this is acceptable, because our primary goal is not to make empirical predictions. However, this does not necessarily mean that the conclusions of our model cannot be used as empirical prediction. Rather, this depends on the extent to which the assumptions of our general model capture essential features of real environments. If this match is sufficiently high, the conclusions of our model on how harshness and unpredictability shape impulsive behavior can be used as empirical predictions. Estimating this match is difficult, if not impossible. There are, however, several limitations that reduce realism and limit the scope of our model. These limitations are hierarchical: we can only address some limitations (e.g., our model does not include life history trajectories) after we have addressed more fundamental limitations (e.g., our model does not address development or environmental change). Here we discuss four fundamental limitations. For each limitation we discuss how potential extensions can incorporate more realistic and more complicated assumptions that address these limitations.
First, in order to reduce complexity we assumed that the parameters of the environment are fixed within and between generations. We further assumed that an agent learned the (meta) parameters of its environment through its evolutionary and developmental history. Although extreme outcomes may be unexpected, they do not change an agent's beliefs about its environment. For some organisms a fixed world assumption may be realistic: if the rate of environmental change is slow compared to the lifespan of an organism, the environment might appear to be fixed from that organism's perspective (Fawcett & Frankenhuis, 2015). However, for species with a longer life span, such as humans, the environment might change both temporally (e.g., due to economic cycles) and spatially (e.g., due to labor or educational migration). In a fixed environment an organism ‘only’ has to infer the value of an encountered resource. In a varying environment, it also has to infer the current state of the environment and forecast what the future might hold. This results in a tradeoff between exploration (sampling information) and exploitation (saving costs by relying on current estimates of the environment). Moreover, in a varying environment, there might be lean years where resources are scarce and/or extrinsic events more extreme. An organism can buffer against such variability by storing resources. This might increase (to save costs on information gathering) or decrease (to reduce the variance in outcomes) impulsivity. Besides reducing realism, this assumption also reduced the scope of our model: unpredictability is often interpreted as changes in the environmental state (e.g., this kind of unpredictability is the focus of Ellis et al., 2009). Future models could incorporate both temporal and spatial unpredictability.
Second, our model includes no development. We studied organisms that (a) are fully developed at birth, (b) are affected by the environment regardless of their age, and (c) reproduce only at the end of life. These assumptions do not hold for many species, including humans. Rather, individuals typically go through early developmental stages in which they acquire the skills needed to integrate information. If the individual faced early-life adversity, or if this acquisition is costly or time consuming, investing in this skillset might not outweigh the cost. Moreover, both the young and the old might be more affected by resource scarcity and extrinsic events than adults. In hunter-gatherer societies, only adults produce more food than they consume (Kaplan, Hill, Lancaster, & Hurtado, 2000). Consequentially, in lean years the old and young might be more susceptible for starvation than adults. Similarly, negative extrinsic events such as disease and violence might disproportionally affect the young (who are less able to defend themselves) and the old (who might be weakened due to senescence). Finally, we studied an organism that is semelparous, rather than iteroparous. However, in many species fecundity and fertility often peak during middle age. As both reproduction and the subsequent investment in offspring are costly, individuals in middle age might face a higher demand for resources. Future models can build in age structure and reproduction, with survival and fecundity differing at different ages, and explore how such selection regimes shape the optimal level of impulsivity.
Our model can also be extended to include developmental processes in order to explore to two empirical patterns. First, impulsivity and risk taking are highest during adolescence, when individuals enter the mating competition market (Figner, Mackinlay, Wilkening, & Weber, 2009; Steinberg, 2007). For risk behavior, a common explanation is that securing a high quality mate requires intense competition for resources and social status (Ellis et al., 2012), which demands high levels of risk taking (e.g., engaging in physical fights). Future models could examine whether this increased need for resources and social status likewise results in more impulsive behavior. Another empirical pattern is the paradoxical (but robust) finding that both behavioral tasks and self-report questionnaires predict real-world impulsivity, yet the two sets of measurement show little to no correlation (Cyders & Coskunpinar, 2011; Reynolds, Ortengren, Richards, & de Wit, 2006; Stahl et al., 2014). A popular explanation is that both sets of measurements tap into separate constructs. Self-reports measure a stable baseline of impulsivity (i.e., trait impulsivity), whereas behavioral tasks measure the capability to flexibly deviate from this baseline in situations that require higher or lower levels. This explanation raises such interesting questions as: Why there is a baseline? Why do we not always adjust our impulsivity to match the current situation? Why do individuals differ in their baseline levels? Is this baseline continuously updated throughout development, or are there sensitive periods in which the baseline is set for the rest of life? Part of the answer to these questions might be that flexibility comes at a cost. For instance, the cognitive machinery needed to make constant adjustments might be expensive to maintain. If we always need the same level of impulsivity – for instance, when our environment is sufficiently stable – the cost of plasticity might outweigh its benefits (Fawcett & Frankenhuis, 2015). Moreover, if the environment is very stable, the best strategy might be to set a fixed baseline early in life (i.e., a sensitive period). Future models can explore these questions by incorporating developmental processes.
Third, we committed to the ‘behavioral gambit’: we studied a single behavioral trait in isolation, and implicitly assumed that the expression of this trait is not hindered by other life history, behavioral, or physiological traits (Fawcett, Hamblin, & Giraldeau, 2013). Furthermore, our model did not address genetic, developmental, physiological, or cognitive limitations that prevent an organism from following the optimal policy. In real life there are limitations. For example, we assumed that organisms behave as-if they perform Bayesian updating. However, Bayesian updating is computationally expensive at the best of times, and computationally intractable in most realistic situations (Trimmer, McNamara, Houston, & Marshall, 2012; van Rooij, Wright, Kwisthout, & Wareham, 2018).
The behavioral gambit is a useful simplification when testing under what environmental conditions impulsivity might be adaptive. However, it limits the scope and realism of our results. Future extensions might explore two different avenues. First, they can incorporate more realistic cognitive processes. For example, future models can study agents that rely on heuristics that human decision-makers are known to use. This extension can study in which environment a specific heuristic performs well, and when it performs poorly. Alternatively, rather than simulating agents that use known heuristics, future models can use the computed optimal policies to explore new heuristics. Specifically, based on modeling results, future research can explore which heuristics would allow animals to approximate optimal decisions. Second, they can increase realism by incorporating other behavioral traits. Such a model can provide novel insights for two different debates. Different notions of impulsivity are only weakly correlated or even uncorrelated (section 1.2.3). A model incorporating multiple types of impulsivity can explore whether environmental conditions moderate the correlation between different conceptualizations. That is, it can explore whether some environments favor high (or low) levels of all types, whereas others favor high levels of one type but low levels of the other. Alternatively, extensions can incorporate other behavioral, physiological, or life history traits that are proposed to cluster on a fast-slow continuum. This extension can test the claim that harsh and unpredictable environments result in faster life-history strategies.
Fourth, we assumed that agents did not interact, nor needed to consider the behavior of other agents (i.e., our model is not game theoretic). This assumption is reasonable for some decisions. For instance, if resources are (practically) infinite, the actions of one agent do not noticeably change the number of available resources (e.g., when job supply is high, accepting a job does not meaningfully decrease the total number of available jobs). In other decisions agents do interact, but only indirectly. In this case, accepting may reduce the resources available for other agents. However, the behavior of other agents does not influence the consequences of an action during a resource encounter. For instance, two predators may share overlapping domains. Although they rarely are in close proximity, resources consumed by one are no longer available for the other. However, whether or not one predator should give chase to prey does not depend on the actions of the other predator. Our model can incorporate some indirect interactions by changing the parameters of an environment. For instance, our graphical interface allows users to increase or decrease the interruption rate (e.g., prey might be more or less easily scared) or to assume that resources are non-normally distributed (e.g., competitors might be more likely to consume positive than negative resources). However, in many real-world decisions an agent does need to consider the actions of other agents. For instance, resources might become scarce if everyone acts impulsively. If so, acting impulsively may be the only way to collect resources. Such policy, where one is impulsive because everybody else is, results in a positive feedback loop that might increase impulsivity. Alternatively, high levels competition may foster selective cooperation, which requires low levels of impulsivity. It can also result in even more complex patterns, where multiple phenotypes coexist, or the population might cycle between multiple phenotypes (Bear & Rand, 2016; Tomlin, Rand, Ludvig, & Cohen, 2015). It will be hard if not impossible to predict outcomes without building the model. Future models might therefore incorporate interactions between agents.
To end, we have presented a formal model of the increasingly common claim impulsive behavior is adaptive in harsh and unpredictable environments. Our results show that this hypothesis is not universally true, but rather, depends on the exact definition of harshness, unpredictability, and impulsivity. We hope our model will contribute to the corpus of formal models of theories that feature centrally in the evolutionary social sciences.
Saturday, August 15, 2020
People with greater olfactory discrimination acuity were higher in dispositional sexual disgust, but not pathogen or moral disgust; were also less inclined towards short-term mating
Investigating the relationship between olfactory acuity, disgust, and mating strategies. Marjorie L. Prokosch Zachary Airington Damian R. Murray. Evolution and Human Behavior, August 15 2020,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.08.002
Abstract: Although humans' sense of smell is relatively diminished compared to other species, olfaction is still a central sensory modality through which people evaluate both potential threats and prospective romantic partners. Despite olfaction's role in interpersonal relationships and disease avoidant responses, however, it remains unknown whether variation in olfactory acuity is associated with disease- and mating-relevant psychological constructs and behaviors. In the current exploratory study, we examined the relationships between olfactory acuity, disgust sensitivity, and mating strategies in a sample of undergraduate students (N = 162) at a university in the Southern United States using an extended assessment of olfactory acuity (measuring olfactory threshold, discrimination, and identification). Results revealed that people with greater discrimination acuity were higher in dispositional sexual disgust, but not pathogen or moral disgust. People with greater discrimination acuity were also less inclined towards short-term mating. Further, sexual disgust mediated the relationship between discrimination acuity and short-term mating orientation. These results provide further evidence for the importance of olfaction and olfaction-related disgust in close relationships.
Keywords: OlfactionDisgustMating strategySociosexualityIndividual differences
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.08.002
Abstract: Although humans' sense of smell is relatively diminished compared to other species, olfaction is still a central sensory modality through which people evaluate both potential threats and prospective romantic partners. Despite olfaction's role in interpersonal relationships and disease avoidant responses, however, it remains unknown whether variation in olfactory acuity is associated with disease- and mating-relevant psychological constructs and behaviors. In the current exploratory study, we examined the relationships between olfactory acuity, disgust sensitivity, and mating strategies in a sample of undergraduate students (N = 162) at a university in the Southern United States using an extended assessment of olfactory acuity (measuring olfactory threshold, discrimination, and identification). Results revealed that people with greater discrimination acuity were higher in dispositional sexual disgust, but not pathogen or moral disgust. People with greater discrimination acuity were also less inclined towards short-term mating. Further, sexual disgust mediated the relationship between discrimination acuity and short-term mating orientation. These results provide further evidence for the importance of olfaction and olfaction-related disgust in close relationships.
Keywords: OlfactionDisgustMating strategySociosexualityIndividual differences
Women’s demand for redistribution is higher; the gender difference appears only when the source of inequality is based on relative abilities, but not when it is based on luck; men are more overconfident on their abilities
Overconfidence and gender gaps in redistributive preferences: Cross-Country experimental evidence. Thomas Buser et al. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Volume 178, October 2020, Pages 267-286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.07.005
Abstract: Gender differences in voting patterns and political attitudes towards redistribution are well-documented. The experimental gender literature suggests several plausible behavioral explanations behind these differences, relating to gender differences in confidence concerning future relative income position, risk aversion, and social preferences. We use data from lab experiments on preferences for redistribution conducted in the U.S. and several European countries to investigate gender differences and their causes. On aggregate, women’ s demand for redistribution is higher than men’ s, but the differences vary considerably across locations and countries. Moreover, the gender difference appears only when the source of inequality is based on relative abilities, but not when it is based on luck. Our most robust finding is that across all sampled locations, men’ s relatively higher (over)confidence in their abilities, in comparison to women, leads them to specify lower redistribution levels. We discuss the role of confidence in accounting for gender differences in political and redistributive choices outside the lab.
Keywords: GenderRedistributionOverconfidenceRisk attitudesVotingTaxation
Abstract: Gender differences in voting patterns and political attitudes towards redistribution are well-documented. The experimental gender literature suggests several plausible behavioral explanations behind these differences, relating to gender differences in confidence concerning future relative income position, risk aversion, and social preferences. We use data from lab experiments on preferences for redistribution conducted in the U.S. and several European countries to investigate gender differences and their causes. On aggregate, women’ s demand for redistribution is higher than men’ s, but the differences vary considerably across locations and countries. Moreover, the gender difference appears only when the source of inequality is based on relative abilities, but not when it is based on luck. Our most robust finding is that across all sampled locations, men’ s relatively higher (over)confidence in their abilities, in comparison to women, leads them to specify lower redistribution levels. We discuss the role of confidence in accounting for gender differences in political and redistributive choices outside the lab.
Keywords: GenderRedistributionOverconfidenceRisk attitudesVotingTaxation
Speed of perceived time is slower for those of higher IQ
Measures of Temporal Perception as Predictive Factors for Individual Intelligence and Further Relationships Between Intelligence and Temporal Perception. Cole Tibbs. Capella Univ, Aug 2020. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343530713
Abstract: Intelligence (IQ) and speed of perceived time (SPT) are known to strongly correlate with numerous factors, including reaction time, inter-hemispheric transfer, and cerebellum volume. While these relationships are well understood, very little evidence has been presented for the relationship between intelligence and speed of perceived time themselves. This essay aims to determine the sources and strength of the relationship between IQ and SPT. The author posits that a negative correlation exists between IQ and SPT. A review of relevant literature provided insight into connections between multiple variables inversely correlated to IQ and SPT, respectively. A correlation of r = -0.606, R2 = 0.368 between IQ and SPT is predicted. A study of 117 nationally representative adult participants is used to support the predictive ability of intelligence based on SPT, reaction time (RT), and number memory (NM). The results demonstrate correlation between IQ and SPT as r = -0.654, R2 = 0.428, p < .0001, confirming the predicted value and supporting the primary hypothesis. This paper highlights the correlation between intelligence and speed of perceived time. It also highlights a 46.2% variability of IQ attributed to SPT and RT. Implications are discussed. Recommendations for future investigation are given.
Abstract: Intelligence (IQ) and speed of perceived time (SPT) are known to strongly correlate with numerous factors, including reaction time, inter-hemispheric transfer, and cerebellum volume. While these relationships are well understood, very little evidence has been presented for the relationship between intelligence and speed of perceived time themselves. This essay aims to determine the sources and strength of the relationship between IQ and SPT. The author posits that a negative correlation exists between IQ and SPT. A review of relevant literature provided insight into connections between multiple variables inversely correlated to IQ and SPT, respectively. A correlation of r = -0.606, R2 = 0.368 between IQ and SPT is predicted. A study of 117 nationally representative adult participants is used to support the predictive ability of intelligence based on SPT, reaction time (RT), and number memory (NM). The results demonstrate correlation between IQ and SPT as r = -0.654, R2 = 0.428, p < .0001, confirming the predicted value and supporting the primary hypothesis. This paper highlights the correlation between intelligence and speed of perceived time. It also highlights a 46.2% variability of IQ attributed to SPT and RT. Implications are discussed. Recommendations for future investigation are given.
Voting Republican was associated with higher levels of commitment compared with voting Democrat; being partnered with someone voting Republican was associated with higher relationship adjustment & commitment
Fangmeier, T. L., Stanley, S. M., Knopp, K., & Rhoades, G. K. (2020). Political party identification and romantic relationship quality. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 9(3), 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/cfp0000141
Abstract: Although there are studies on voting similarity in mate selection, very little research has examined party identification and relationship quality. We assessed associations between reports of personal and partner voting behavior (Democrat, Republican, or Independent) and both relationship adjustment and commitment to one’s partner. We used a national (U.S.) sample of individuals (N = 510) in their 20s and 30s who were mostly in different-sex, serious relationships (Mdn duration = 5.25 years; 50% married). Controlling for age, college graduation, income, religiosity, minority status, and duration of relationship, voting Republican was associated with higher levels of commitment compared with voting Democrat. Similarly, being partnered with someone voting Republican was associated with higher relationship adjustment and commitment compared with being partnered with someone voting Democrat. Notably, differences in commitment were found only among those who were not already married or engaged. Findings were largely consistent with numerous online reports of survey data that have shown modestly greater relationship quality among those who report being politically conservative. Although research has shown that people are less attracted to those who vote differently and that voting differently can be associated with lower relationship quality, we did not generally find perceived voting similarity to be associated with relationship adjustment or commitment. There was one exception: In exploratory analyses, Republicans paired with Democrats tended to report substantially lower relationship adjustment than if paired with Republicans. Implications for political differences among intimate partners and clinical work around these themes are discussed.
Abstract: Although there are studies on voting similarity in mate selection, very little research has examined party identification and relationship quality. We assessed associations between reports of personal and partner voting behavior (Democrat, Republican, or Independent) and both relationship adjustment and commitment to one’s partner. We used a national (U.S.) sample of individuals (N = 510) in their 20s and 30s who were mostly in different-sex, serious relationships (Mdn duration = 5.25 years; 50% married). Controlling for age, college graduation, income, religiosity, minority status, and duration of relationship, voting Republican was associated with higher levels of commitment compared with voting Democrat. Similarly, being partnered with someone voting Republican was associated with higher relationship adjustment and commitment compared with being partnered with someone voting Democrat. Notably, differences in commitment were found only among those who were not already married or engaged. Findings were largely consistent with numerous online reports of survey data that have shown modestly greater relationship quality among those who report being politically conservative. Although research has shown that people are less attracted to those who vote differently and that voting differently can be associated with lower relationship quality, we did not generally find perceived voting similarity to be associated with relationship adjustment or commitment. There was one exception: In exploratory analyses, Republicans paired with Democrats tended to report substantially lower relationship adjustment than if paired with Republicans. Implications for political differences among intimate partners and clinical work around these themes are discussed.
Although there is a small segment that chooses the newer option for what they infer to be its higher efficacy, most consumers believe that an older drug is both safer and more efficacious
Older is better: Consumers prefer older drugs. Yun Jie. Psychology & Marketing, August 13 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21395
Abstract: Despite increasing research attention to healthcare marketing in academia and the concerted effort of the pharmaceutical industry to market its latest products, limited research has explored the effect of launch time on individuals' drug choices. Building upon findings in medical literature that many newly launched drugs are indeed no better than existing ones, this study found that the majority of consumers consistently prefer older drugs when both options are claimed equally safe and/or effective. The reason is that consumers disregard declarative information and, instead, make their own inferences. Although there is a small segment that chooses the newer option for what they infer to be its higher efficacy, most consumers believe that an older drug is both safer and more efficacious. Further, promotion‐focused consumers are more likely to choose newer drugs. The underlying mechanism for how promotion focus affects choice is identified. A sample of practicing doctors cross‐validated our findings, which have implications for practitioners in the pharmaceutical industry.
Abstract: Despite increasing research attention to healthcare marketing in academia and the concerted effort of the pharmaceutical industry to market its latest products, limited research has explored the effect of launch time on individuals' drug choices. Building upon findings in medical literature that many newly launched drugs are indeed no better than existing ones, this study found that the majority of consumers consistently prefer older drugs when both options are claimed equally safe and/or effective. The reason is that consumers disregard declarative information and, instead, make their own inferences. Although there is a small segment that chooses the newer option for what they infer to be its higher efficacy, most consumers believe that an older drug is both safer and more efficacious. Further, promotion‐focused consumers are more likely to choose newer drugs. The underlying mechanism for how promotion focus affects choice is identified. A sample of practicing doctors cross‐validated our findings, which have implications for practitioners in the pharmaceutical industry.
16 Possible Factors for Sweden’s High Covid Death Rate among the Nordics: It is plausible that Sweden’s lighter lockdown accounts for but a small part of Sweden’s higher Covid death rate
16 Possible Factors for Sweden’s High Covid Death Rate among the Nordics. Daniel B. Klein, Joakim Book, Christian Bjørnskov. SSRN, August 14, 2020. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3674138
Abstract: What accounts for Sweden’s high Covid death rate among the Nordics? One factor could be Sweden’s lighter lockdown. But we suggest 15 other possible factors. Most significant are: (1) the “dry-tinder” situation in Sweden; (2) Stockholm’s larger population; (3) Sweden’s higher immigrant population; (4) in Sweden immigrants probably more often work in the elderly care system; (5) Sweden has a greater proportion of people in elderly care; (6) Stockholm’s “sport-break” was a week later than the other three capital cities; (7) Stockholm’s system of elderly care collects especially vulnerable people in nursing homes. Other possible factors are: (8) the Swedish elderly and health care system may have done less to try to cure elderly Covid patients; (9) Sweden may have been relatively understocked in protective equipment and sanitizers; (10) Sweden may have been slower to separate Covid patients in nursing homes; (11) Sweden may have been slower to implement staff testing and changes in protocols and equipage; (12) Sweden elderly care workers may have done more cross-facility work; (13) Sweden might have larger nursing homes; (14) Stockholmers might travel more to the Alpine regions; (15) Sweden might be quicker to count a death "a Covid death.” We give evidence for these other 15 possible factors. It is plausible that Sweden’s lighter lockdown accounts for but a small part of Sweden’s higher Covid death rate.
Keywords: Coronavirus, pandemic, lockdown, elderly care, nursing home
Abstract: What accounts for Sweden’s high Covid death rate among the Nordics? One factor could be Sweden’s lighter lockdown. But we suggest 15 other possible factors. Most significant are: (1) the “dry-tinder” situation in Sweden; (2) Stockholm’s larger population; (3) Sweden’s higher immigrant population; (4) in Sweden immigrants probably more often work in the elderly care system; (5) Sweden has a greater proportion of people in elderly care; (6) Stockholm’s “sport-break” was a week later than the other three capital cities; (7) Stockholm’s system of elderly care collects especially vulnerable people in nursing homes. Other possible factors are: (8) the Swedish elderly and health care system may have done less to try to cure elderly Covid patients; (9) Sweden may have been relatively understocked in protective equipment and sanitizers; (10) Sweden may have been slower to separate Covid patients in nursing homes; (11) Sweden may have been slower to implement staff testing and changes in protocols and equipage; (12) Sweden elderly care workers may have done more cross-facility work; (13) Sweden might have larger nursing homes; (14) Stockholmers might travel more to the Alpine regions; (15) Sweden might be quicker to count a death "a Covid death.” We give evidence for these other 15 possible factors. It is plausible that Sweden’s lighter lockdown accounts for but a small part of Sweden’s higher Covid death rate.
Keywords: Coronavirus, pandemic, lockdown, elderly care, nursing home
Friday, August 14, 2020
Gender gaps in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) participation are larger in societies where women have greater freedom of choice... Why?
A Cultural Psychological Model of Cross-National Variation in Gender Gaps in STEM Participation. Nur Soylu Yalcinkaya, Glenn Adams, Personality and Social Psychology Review, August 13, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868320947005
Abstract: Gender gaps in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) participation are larger in societies where women have greater freedom of choice. We provide a cultural psychological model to explain this pattern. We consider how individualistic/post-materialistic cultural patterns in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrial, Rich, and Democratic) settings foster a self-expressive construction of academic choice, whereby affirming femininity/masculinity and ensuring identity fit become primary goals. Striving to fulfill these goals can lead men toward, and women away from, STEM pursuit, resulting in a large gender gap. In Majority World settings, on the contrary, collectivistic/materialistic cultural patterns foster a security-oriented construction, whereby achieving financial security and fulfilling relational expectations become primary goals of academic choice. These goals can lead both women and men toward secure and lucrative fields like STEM, resulting in a smaller gender gap. Finally, gender gaps in STEM participation feed back into the STEM=male stereotype. We discuss the implications of our model for research and theory, and intervention and policy.
Keywords: gender differences, STEM, academic choice, self-expression, cultural psychology
Abstract: Gender gaps in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) participation are larger in societies where women have greater freedom of choice. We provide a cultural psychological model to explain this pattern. We consider how individualistic/post-materialistic cultural patterns in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrial, Rich, and Democratic) settings foster a self-expressive construction of academic choice, whereby affirming femininity/masculinity and ensuring identity fit become primary goals. Striving to fulfill these goals can lead men toward, and women away from, STEM pursuit, resulting in a large gender gap. In Majority World settings, on the contrary, collectivistic/materialistic cultural patterns foster a security-oriented construction, whereby achieving financial security and fulfilling relational expectations become primary goals of academic choice. These goals can lead both women and men toward secure and lucrative fields like STEM, resulting in a smaller gender gap. Finally, gender gaps in STEM participation feed back into the STEM=male stereotype. We discuss the implications of our model for research and theory, and intervention and policy.
Keywords: gender differences, STEM, academic choice, self-expression, cultural psychology
Male secondary sexual characters may have evolved to advertise males that carry large numbers of beneficial sexually transmitted microbes highly potent against pathogens
Reinoculation of Ideas about the Benefits of Copulation: Reply to Rowe et al. Michael P. Lombardo, Patrick A. Thorpe, Harry W. Power. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, August 13 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2020.07.008
Our bSTM (beneficial sexually transmitted microbes) hypothesis of copulation may explain why female birds either copulate repeatedly with a single mate or with multiple partners when only a single copulation may be sufficient to fertilize an entire clutch. We hypothesized that females may directly benefit from high frequencies of copulation and multiple copulation partners if they are inoculated with bSTMs that function as therapy against current infection or as ‘vaccination’ against future infection. Our hypothesis focused on birds but may apply to other animals.
The bSTM hypothesis requires that beneficial microbes are acquired by females during copulation. Moran and Dunbar [8] experimentally showed that female pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) acquire bSTMs that increase their resistance to parasitoids and fungal infections, increase their tolerance to heat stress, and facilitate their expansion to different host plants. Smith and Mueller [9] reviewed additional examples of bSTMs in humans and mosquitoes.
We predict that careful examination of STMs and their effects on their hosts is likely to identify more bSTMs in wild populations. The bSTM hypothesis assumes that the probability that a female becomes colonized by STMs increases with the number of her copulations with a single partner or with multiple partners. Observations that copulations with multiple partners increases the diversity of the reproductive microbiomes of female lizards [10] and mice [11] satisfy this assumption.
We predicted that male secondary sexual characters may have evolved to advertise males that carry large numbers of bSTMs highly potent against pSTMs, and Rowe et al. [2] reiterated this prediction. By showing a positive correlation between bill coloration, a sexually selected trait in male mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), and the bacteria-killing ability of their semen, Rowe et al. [12] demonstrated the possibility that sexual selection can mold signals associated with bSTMs. We expect that future research will discover male secondary sexual characteristics to be associated with a male’s ability to deliver bSTMs to females.
Our bSTM (beneficial sexually transmitted microbes) hypothesis of copulation may explain why female birds either copulate repeatedly with a single mate or with multiple partners when only a single copulation may be sufficient to fertilize an entire clutch. We hypothesized that females may directly benefit from high frequencies of copulation and multiple copulation partners if they are inoculated with bSTMs that function as therapy against current infection or as ‘vaccination’ against future infection. Our hypothesis focused on birds but may apply to other animals.
The bSTM hypothesis requires that beneficial microbes are acquired by females during copulation. Moran and Dunbar [8] experimentally showed that female pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) acquire bSTMs that increase their resistance to parasitoids and fungal infections, increase their tolerance to heat stress, and facilitate their expansion to different host plants. Smith and Mueller [9] reviewed additional examples of bSTMs in humans and mosquitoes.
We predict that careful examination of STMs and their effects on their hosts is likely to identify more bSTMs in wild populations. The bSTM hypothesis assumes that the probability that a female becomes colonized by STMs increases with the number of her copulations with a single partner or with multiple partners. Observations that copulations with multiple partners increases the diversity of the reproductive microbiomes of female lizards [10] and mice [11] satisfy this assumption.
We predicted that male secondary sexual characters may have evolved to advertise males that carry large numbers of bSTMs highly potent against pSTMs, and Rowe et al. [2] reiterated this prediction. By showing a positive correlation between bill coloration, a sexually selected trait in male mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), and the bacteria-killing ability of their semen, Rowe et al. [12] demonstrated the possibility that sexual selection can mold signals associated with bSTMs. We expect that future research will discover male secondary sexual characteristics to be associated with a male’s ability to deliver bSTMs to females.
Screening for Dark Personalities: The authors say they uncovered a novel link between sadism and sexuality, but sadists are not maladjusted
Screening for Dark Personalities: The Short Dark Tetrad (SD4). Delroy L. Paulhus et al. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, July 27, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000602
Abstract. Consensus is emerging that the constellation of dark personalities should include the sadistic personality. To build a four-factor measure, we modified and extended the Short Dark Triad (SD3) measure to include sadism. A series of three studies yielded the Short Dark Tetrad (SD4), a four subscale inventory with 7 items per construct. Study 1 (N = 868) applied exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to a diverse 48-item pool using data collected on MTurk. A 4-factor solution revealed a separate sadism factor, as well as a shifted Dark Triad. Study 2 (N = 999 students) applied EFA to a reduced 37-item set. Associations with adjustment and sex drive provided insight into unique personality dynamics of the four constructs. In Study 3 (N = 660), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the final 28 items showed acceptable fit for a four-factor solution. Moreover, the resulting 7-item subscales each showed coherent links with the Big Five and adjustment. In sum, the four-factor structure replicated across student and community samples. Although they overlap to a moderate degree, the four subscales show distinctive correlates – even with a control for acquiescence. We also uncovered a novel link between sadism and sexuality, but no association with maladjustment.
Keywords: dark personalities, questionnaire, sadism
Abstract. Consensus is emerging that the constellation of dark personalities should include the sadistic personality. To build a four-factor measure, we modified and extended the Short Dark Triad (SD3) measure to include sadism. A series of three studies yielded the Short Dark Tetrad (SD4), a four subscale inventory with 7 items per construct. Study 1 (N = 868) applied exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to a diverse 48-item pool using data collected on MTurk. A 4-factor solution revealed a separate sadism factor, as well as a shifted Dark Triad. Study 2 (N = 999 students) applied EFA to a reduced 37-item set. Associations with adjustment and sex drive provided insight into unique personality dynamics of the four constructs. In Study 3 (N = 660), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the final 28 items showed acceptable fit for a four-factor solution. Moreover, the resulting 7-item subscales each showed coherent links with the Big Five and adjustment. In sum, the four-factor structure replicated across student and community samples. Although they overlap to a moderate degree, the four subscales show distinctive correlates – even with a control for acquiescence. We also uncovered a novel link between sadism and sexuality, but no association with maladjustment.
Keywords: dark personalities, questionnaire, sadism
We found that men and women told larger and more frequent lies to their parents, with women telling the largest and most frequent lies of all to their fathers; both men & women frequently say they are chaster than really are
Papa Don’t Preach? Using Lies to Expose the Truth about Who Suppresses Female Sexuality. Dax J. Kellie, Barnaby J. W. Dixson & Robert C. Brooks. Human Nature (2020). Aug 14 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12110-020-09372-7
Abstract: The suppression of sexuality is culturally widespread, and women’s sexual promiscuity, activity, and enjoyment are almost always judged and punished more harshly than men’s. It remains disputed, however, to what end people suppress sexuality, and who benefits from the suppression of female sexuality. Different theories predict that women in general, men in general, women’s intimate partners, or parents benefit most. Here we use the lies women and men tell—or imagine telling—about their sexual histories as an indirect measure of who is most involved in the suppression of sexuality. We asked men and women what they would reply if asked questions by their mother, father, current partner, attractive confederate, and various same- or opposite-sex friends and colleagues about their number of previous sex partners, age at first romantic kiss, age at first consensual sex, and cheating on a previous partner or spouse. By comparing the size and direction of the lies that subjects told, we tested competing predictions of several cultural and evolutionary theories concerning why female sexuality is suppressed and who is driving its suppression. We found that men and women told larger and more frequent lies to their parents, with women telling the largest and most frequent lies of all to their fathers. Additionally, the majority of lies by both men and women were in sexually conservative directions. Our findings suggest that mothers, and especially fathers, restrict female sexuality.
Abstract: The suppression of sexuality is culturally widespread, and women’s sexual promiscuity, activity, and enjoyment are almost always judged and punished more harshly than men’s. It remains disputed, however, to what end people suppress sexuality, and who benefits from the suppression of female sexuality. Different theories predict that women in general, men in general, women’s intimate partners, or parents benefit most. Here we use the lies women and men tell—or imagine telling—about their sexual histories as an indirect measure of who is most involved in the suppression of sexuality. We asked men and women what they would reply if asked questions by their mother, father, current partner, attractive confederate, and various same- or opposite-sex friends and colleagues about their number of previous sex partners, age at first romantic kiss, age at first consensual sex, and cheating on a previous partner or spouse. By comparing the size and direction of the lies that subjects told, we tested competing predictions of several cultural and evolutionary theories concerning why female sexuality is suppressed and who is driving its suppression. We found that men and women told larger and more frequent lies to their parents, with women telling the largest and most frequent lies of all to their fathers. Additionally, the majority of lies by both men and women were in sexually conservative directions. Our findings suggest that mothers, and especially fathers, restrict female sexuality.
Subjective age changed during a global health crisis, with people feeling younger with the emergence of COVID-19; partly reflects a coping process of psychological distancing from older age (the most vulnerable group)
Changes in Subjective Age During COVID-19. Antonio Terracciano et al. The Gerontologist, gnaa104, August 7 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa104
Abstract
Background and Objectives: To examine change in subjective age with the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Two competing hypotheses were tested: (a) people felt increasingly older due to the stress generated by the pandemic; (b) people felt increasingly younger due to psychological distancing from older age, a vulnerability to COVID-19.
Research Design and Methods: An age and sex stratified sample of adults from across the United States (baseline N = 3,738) was assessed on three occasions: before the COVID-19 outbreak in late-January/early-February and during the outbreak in late-March and again in late-April. Multilevel modeling analysis examined change in subjective age and tested potential moderators of individual differences in the trajectory of subjective age.
Results: The average trajectory of subjective age followed a concave curve, with a nadir (feeling younger) during the second assessment in late-March. Older age, negative expectations about aging, absence of pre-existing conditions, and less stress during COVID-19 were associated with feeling younger but did not predict the rate of change. The only significant predictor of change in subjective age was the belief that the “coronavirus is only a threat to older adults”: The more individuals agreed with this statement, the more likely it was that they felt increasingly younger at follow-up.
Discussion and Implications: Subjective age changed during a global health crisis, with people feeling younger with the emergence COVID-19. The findings support the hypothesis that subjective age partly reflects a coping process of psychological distancing from older age, the age group most vulnerable to COVID-19.
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, Coronavirus, Age identity, Longitudinal, Multilevel Modeling
Abstract
Background and Objectives: To examine change in subjective age with the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Two competing hypotheses were tested: (a) people felt increasingly older due to the stress generated by the pandemic; (b) people felt increasingly younger due to psychological distancing from older age, a vulnerability to COVID-19.
Research Design and Methods: An age and sex stratified sample of adults from across the United States (baseline N = 3,738) was assessed on three occasions: before the COVID-19 outbreak in late-January/early-February and during the outbreak in late-March and again in late-April. Multilevel modeling analysis examined change in subjective age and tested potential moderators of individual differences in the trajectory of subjective age.
Results: The average trajectory of subjective age followed a concave curve, with a nadir (feeling younger) during the second assessment in late-March. Older age, negative expectations about aging, absence of pre-existing conditions, and less stress during COVID-19 were associated with feeling younger but did not predict the rate of change. The only significant predictor of change in subjective age was the belief that the “coronavirus is only a threat to older adults”: The more individuals agreed with this statement, the more likely it was that they felt increasingly younger at follow-up.
Discussion and Implications: Subjective age changed during a global health crisis, with people feeling younger with the emergence COVID-19. The findings support the hypothesis that subjective age partly reflects a coping process of psychological distancing from older age, the age group most vulnerable to COVID-19.
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, Coronavirus, Age identity, Longitudinal, Multilevel Modeling
How does animal welfare taste? Information regarding animal welfare affects hedonic liking & willingness to pay; consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels
How does animal welfare taste? Combining sensory and choice experiments to evaluate willingness to pay for animal welfare pork. Sabine Gross, Megan E. Waldrop, Jutta Roosen. Food Quality and Preference, August 13 2020, 104055, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.104055
Highlights
• Combining sensory and choice experiments to evaluate the importance of animal welfare.
• Information regarding animal welfare affects hedonic liking and willingness to pay.
• Consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels.
• General, but not specific information on husbandry practices affects preferences.
Abstract: Although consumers show considerable interest in higher animal welfare, the market share for such products remains low. To provide consumers with a choice regarding different levels of animal welfare, animal welfare labels have been developed. Such product options are intended to serve as intermediate products between conventional products and more expensive organic options that are often associated with high animal welfare standards. This study aims to evaluate whether information about animal welfare practices affects consumers’ liking and willingness to pay (WTP) for a pork product. Using a within-subject design with three evaluation rounds (blind, expectation, and full information) we combine hedonic liking where subjects rate four different types of ham with a choice experiment. Hams differ in the animal husbandry conditions during the rearing and fattening process: conventional rearing, a specific treatment of mother sows, a general animal welfare label, and organic production. Results show an effect of information on consumers’ sensory evaluation of the different products, although products were evaluated to be similar in the blind condition. Consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels while the conventional option had the lowest liking scores. Results from the choice experiment concur with the hedonic rating. Estimates indicate that consumers are willing to pay more for ham bearing a general animal welfare or organic label in the expectation and full information condition. Consequently, information regarding animal welfare affects both consumers’ hedonic liking and WTP for ham.
Keywords: Animal welfarechoice experimentsensory evaluationwillingness to pay
Highlights
• Combining sensory and choice experiments to evaluate the importance of animal welfare.
• Information regarding animal welfare affects hedonic liking and willingness to pay.
• Consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels.
• General, but not specific information on husbandry practices affects preferences.
Abstract: Although consumers show considerable interest in higher animal welfare, the market share for such products remains low. To provide consumers with a choice regarding different levels of animal welfare, animal welfare labels have been developed. Such product options are intended to serve as intermediate products between conventional products and more expensive organic options that are often associated with high animal welfare standards. This study aims to evaluate whether information about animal welfare practices affects consumers’ liking and willingness to pay (WTP) for a pork product. Using a within-subject design with three evaluation rounds (blind, expectation, and full information) we combine hedonic liking where subjects rate four different types of ham with a choice experiment. Hams differ in the animal husbandry conditions during the rearing and fattening process: conventional rearing, a specific treatment of mother sows, a general animal welfare label, and organic production. Results show an effect of information on consumers’ sensory evaluation of the different products, although products were evaluated to be similar in the blind condition. Consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels while the conventional option had the lowest liking scores. Results from the choice experiment concur with the hedonic rating. Estimates indicate that consumers are willing to pay more for ham bearing a general animal welfare or organic label in the expectation and full information condition. Consequently, information regarding animal welfare affects both consumers’ hedonic liking and WTP for ham.
Keywords: Animal welfarechoice experimentsensory evaluationwillingness to pay
We investigated whether jurors assign more weight to evidence if obtained through technological means-and the impact of crime severity on juror decision-making (CSI Effect & Tech Effect)
Lodge, Chloe, and Mircea Zloteanu. 2020. “Jurors' Expectations and Decision-making: Revisiting the CSI Effect.” PsyArXiv. August 13. doi:10.31234/osf.io/jbwzc
Abstract: It has been argued that the rise in popularity of crime show dramas over the past few years has led to jurors holding unrealistic expectations regarding the type of evidence presented at trial. This has been coined the CSI effect. We investigated the CSI effect and the less well-known Tech effect-assigning more weight to evidence if obtained through technological means-and the impact of crime severity on juror decision-making. However, we argue that as time progresses, such effects will no longer be found to impact juror decision-making processes. We propose that past effects reported in the literature can be explained by considering a novelty bias. Using both frequentist and Bayesian frameworks, we tested this claim. Participants were primed with a newspaper that either contained a forensic, technology, or neutral article. They were then presented with two crime scenarios and asked to provide a verdict and a confidence rating. We find that mock jurors were unaffected by either the priming manipulation or crime severity, finding no evidence for either the CSI or Tech effects. The data suggest jurors are not as easily biased as has been previously argued in the literature, indicating a potential shift in public perceptions and expectations regarding evidence.
Abstract: It has been argued that the rise in popularity of crime show dramas over the past few years has led to jurors holding unrealistic expectations regarding the type of evidence presented at trial. This has been coined the CSI effect. We investigated the CSI effect and the less well-known Tech effect-assigning more weight to evidence if obtained through technological means-and the impact of crime severity on juror decision-making. However, we argue that as time progresses, such effects will no longer be found to impact juror decision-making processes. We propose that past effects reported in the literature can be explained by considering a novelty bias. Using both frequentist and Bayesian frameworks, we tested this claim. Participants were primed with a newspaper that either contained a forensic, technology, or neutral article. They were then presented with two crime scenarios and asked to provide a verdict and a confidence rating. We find that mock jurors were unaffected by either the priming manipulation or crime severity, finding no evidence for either the CSI or Tech effects. The data suggest jurors are not as easily biased as has been previously argued in the literature, indicating a potential shift in public perceptions and expectations regarding evidence.
The positive effect of expressed affection exceeded the effect of received affection
Affectionate communication and health: A meta-analysis. Colin Hesse et al. Communication Monographs, Aug 12 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2020.1805480
ABSTRACT: A robust literature documents the health benefits of affectionate communication. The present study offers a meta-analysis of this literature to estimate general effects of affectionate communication on several areas of health, including cardiovascular, stress hormonal, stress reactivity, and mental health. We also examined potential moderators, including the type of affectionate communication and sex, while predicting that the benefits of expressed affection outweigh the benefits of received affection. We found a weighted mean effect of r = .23 for the relationship between affectionate communication and health, with differences based on type of health outcome but none for type of affection or sex. The effect of expressed affection exceeded the effect of received affection. The paper discusses the implications of these results.
KEYWORDS: Affection, affectionate communication, health, wellness, meta-analysis, affection exchange theory
ABSTRACT: A robust literature documents the health benefits of affectionate communication. The present study offers a meta-analysis of this literature to estimate general effects of affectionate communication on several areas of health, including cardiovascular, stress hormonal, stress reactivity, and mental health. We also examined potential moderators, including the type of affectionate communication and sex, while predicting that the benefits of expressed affection outweigh the benefits of received affection. We found a weighted mean effect of r = .23 for the relationship between affectionate communication and health, with differences based on type of health outcome but none for type of affection or sex. The effect of expressed affection exceeded the effect of received affection. The paper discusses the implications of these results.
KEYWORDS: Affection, affectionate communication, health, wellness, meta-analysis, affection exchange theory
Thursday, August 13, 2020
Recent studies point to a “cynical” view of social perceivers who assume that even moderately moral people could engage in moderately immoral behaviors; this view seems to vary among cultures
Patrice Rusconi, Simona Sacchi, Marco Brambilla, Roberta Capellini, and Paolo Cherubini (2020). Being Honest and Acting Consistently: Boundary Conditions of the Negativity Effect in the Attribution of Morality. Social Cognition: Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 146-178. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2020.38.2.146
Abstract: Morality, which refers to characteristics such as trustworthiness and honesty, has a primary role in social perception and judgment. A negativity effect characterizes the morality dimension, whereby negative information is weighed more than positive information in trait attribution and impression formation. This article reviews the literature on the negativity effect in trait attribution and impression formation. We examine the main boundary conditions of the negativity effect by considering relevant moderators, such as behavior consistency and evaluative extremity, level of categorization, and measurement type as well as some theoretical and empirical inconsistencies in the literature. We also review recent studies showing that social perceivers hold negative assumptions about people's morality. We outline future directions for research on the negativity effect that should consider trait extremity, use alternative measures to the perceived frequency of behaviors, introduce more precise definitions of relevant constructs, such as diagnosticity, and test different schemata of trait-behavior relations.
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Culture and Historical Period.
Unlike previous models’ assumption that social perceivers hold moderately positive expectations about other people’s behaviors (Fiske, 1980; Helson, 1947, 1948; Jones & Davis, 1965; Sherif & Sherif, 1967), the recent studies by Meindl et al. (2016) and Rusconi et al. (2017) point to a “cynical” view of social perceivers who assume that even moderately moral people could engage in moderately immoral behaviors (e.g., Rusconi et al., 2017). A possible interpretation of this discrepancy is that the perceivers’ assumptions about other people’s morality vary across culture and time. A systematic analysis of the influence of cultural factors is needed as research in this area has been conducted in Western countries (e.g., Reeder et al., 1982; Rusconi et al., 2017; Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1992; Tausch et al., 2007). Rusconi et al. (2017) found the same pattern of results, although with a different magnitude, in an Italian and an American sample (Rusconi et al., 2017, Study 4). It is thus possible that more pronounced differences can be found when comparing Western as opposed to non-Western participants given the different consideration of situational information (e.g., Morris & Peng, 1994) as well as conceptualizations of morality (e.g., Shweder, Mahapatra, & Miller, 1987; Wojciszke, Bazinska, & Jaworski, 1998, footnote 2) across societies.
Abstract: Morality, which refers to characteristics such as trustworthiness and honesty, has a primary role in social perception and judgment. A negativity effect characterizes the morality dimension, whereby negative information is weighed more than positive information in trait attribution and impression formation. This article reviews the literature on the negativity effect in trait attribution and impression formation. We examine the main boundary conditions of the negativity effect by considering relevant moderators, such as behavior consistency and evaluative extremity, level of categorization, and measurement type as well as some theoretical and empirical inconsistencies in the literature. We also review recent studies showing that social perceivers hold negative assumptions about people's morality. We outline future directions for research on the negativity effect that should consider trait extremity, use alternative measures to the perceived frequency of behaviors, introduce more precise definitions of relevant constructs, such as diagnosticity, and test different schemata of trait-behavior relations.
---
Culture and Historical Period.
Unlike previous models’ assumption that social perceivers hold moderately positive expectations about other people’s behaviors (Fiske, 1980; Helson, 1947, 1948; Jones & Davis, 1965; Sherif & Sherif, 1967), the recent studies by Meindl et al. (2016) and Rusconi et al. (2017) point to a “cynical” view of social perceivers who assume that even moderately moral people could engage in moderately immoral behaviors (e.g., Rusconi et al., 2017). A possible interpretation of this discrepancy is that the perceivers’ assumptions about other people’s morality vary across culture and time. A systematic analysis of the influence of cultural factors is needed as research in this area has been conducted in Western countries (e.g., Reeder et al., 1982; Rusconi et al., 2017; Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1992; Tausch et al., 2007). Rusconi et al. (2017) found the same pattern of results, although with a different magnitude, in an Italian and an American sample (Rusconi et al., 2017, Study 4). It is thus possible that more pronounced differences can be found when comparing Western as opposed to non-Western participants given the different consideration of situational information (e.g., Morris & Peng, 1994) as well as conceptualizations of morality (e.g., Shweder, Mahapatra, & Miller, 1987; Wojciszke, Bazinska, & Jaworski, 1998, footnote 2) across societies.
Wednesday, August 12, 2020
Older adults do not access less negatively emotional memories or describe the memories more positively, but they just evaluate these memories more positively than the young
The happiest and the saddest autobiographical memories and aging. Simay Ikier & Çağla Duman. Current Psychology (2020). Aug 12 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-020-00993-w
Abstract: The present study investigated autobiographical memories of younger, middle-aged and older adults for the events that made them the happiest and the saddest in their lives. Participants generated these memory types and provided ratings about how positive and how negative the memory makes them feel when they currently think about it, and the positivity of the emotional content of the memory. Participants provided the age at which the event happened and rated the importance and effectiveness of the event in who they have become presently, and their perceived control over the event. Results provided supporting evidence for the positivity effect, by showing that older adults felt more positive about their memories. Middle-aged adults’ ratings resembled older adults’ for the happiest and younger adults’ for the saddest memories. Two young independent raters rated all descriptions of older adults’ memories. Results showed that young raters’ positive emotion ratings were lower than older adults, for both the happiest and the saddest memories. This result indicated that older adults do not access less negatively emotional memories or describe the memories more positively, but they just evaluate these memories more positively. Results showed a reminiscence bump for the happiest but not for the saddest memories, supporting the predictions of the Life Script Account. Additionally, results provided partial and rather weak support for the Life Story Account in younger and middle-aged adults, but not in older adults. The results indicate that older adulthood may be characterized by a more positive evaluation of life experiences.
Abstract: The present study investigated autobiographical memories of younger, middle-aged and older adults for the events that made them the happiest and the saddest in their lives. Participants generated these memory types and provided ratings about how positive and how negative the memory makes them feel when they currently think about it, and the positivity of the emotional content of the memory. Participants provided the age at which the event happened and rated the importance and effectiveness of the event in who they have become presently, and their perceived control over the event. Results provided supporting evidence for the positivity effect, by showing that older adults felt more positive about their memories. Middle-aged adults’ ratings resembled older adults’ for the happiest and younger adults’ for the saddest memories. Two young independent raters rated all descriptions of older adults’ memories. Results showed that young raters’ positive emotion ratings were lower than older adults, for both the happiest and the saddest memories. This result indicated that older adults do not access less negatively emotional memories or describe the memories more positively, but they just evaluate these memories more positively. Results showed a reminiscence bump for the happiest but not for the saddest memories, supporting the predictions of the Life Script Account. Additionally, results provided partial and rather weak support for the Life Story Account in younger and middle-aged adults, but not in older adults. The results indicate that older adulthood may be characterized by a more positive evaluation of life experiences.
Participants indicated they would stand, sit or walk closer to the stranger when either of them was wearing a mask; this form of risk compensation was stronger for those who believed masks were effective
Luckman, Ashley, Hossam Zeitoun, Andrea Isoni, Graham Loomes, Ivo Vlaev, Nattavudh Powdthavee, and Daniel Read. 2020. “Risk Compensation During COVID-19: The Impact of Face Mask Usage on Social Distancing.” OSF Preprints. August 12. doi:10.31219/osf.io/rb8he.
Abstract: To reduce the spread of Covid-19, governments around the world recommended or required minimum physical distancing between individuals, as well as either mandating or recommending the use of face coverings (masks) in certain circumstances. When multiple risk reduction activities can be adopted, people may engage in risk compensation. They may respond to reduced risk due to one activity by increasing risk due to another. We tested for risk compensation related to mask usage during the Covid-19 pandemic in two online experiments that investigated whether either wearing a mask or seeing others wearing masks reduced physical distancing. We presented participants with stylized images of everyday scenarios involving themselves with or without a mask and a stranger with or without a mask. For each scenario, participants indicated the minimum distance they would keep from the stranger. Consistent with risk compensation, we found that participants indicated they would stand, sit or walk closer to the stranger when either of them was wearing a mask. This form of risk compensation was stronger for those who believed masks were effective at preventing catching or spreading Covid-19, and for younger (18-40 years) compared to older (over 65 years) participants.
Abstract: To reduce the spread of Covid-19, governments around the world recommended or required minimum physical distancing between individuals, as well as either mandating or recommending the use of face coverings (masks) in certain circumstances. When multiple risk reduction activities can be adopted, people may engage in risk compensation. They may respond to reduced risk due to one activity by increasing risk due to another. We tested for risk compensation related to mask usage during the Covid-19 pandemic in two online experiments that investigated whether either wearing a mask or seeing others wearing masks reduced physical distancing. We presented participants with stylized images of everyday scenarios involving themselves with or without a mask and a stranger with or without a mask. For each scenario, participants indicated the minimum distance they would keep from the stranger. Consistent with risk compensation, we found that participants indicated they would stand, sit or walk closer to the stranger when either of them was wearing a mask. This form of risk compensation was stronger for those who believed masks were effective at preventing catching or spreading Covid-19, and for younger (18-40 years) compared to older (over 65 years) participants.
There is little evidence for obesity-related differences in enhanced neural reactivity to visual food cues & that such differences might be mediated by additional factors that are often not considered
Is obesity related to enhanced neural reactivity to visual food cues? A review and meta-analysis. Filip Morys, Isabel García-García, Alain Dagher. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, nsaa113, August 12 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaa113
Abstract: Theoretical work suggests that obesity is related to enhanced incentive salience of food cues. However, evidence from both behavioral and neuroimaging studies on the topic is mixed. In this work we review the literature on cue reactivity in obesity and perform a preregistered meta-analysis of studies investigating effects of obesity on brain responses to passive food pictures viewing. Further, we examine whether age influences brain responses to food cues in obesity. In the meta-analysis we included 13 studies of children and adults that investigated group differences (obese vs. lean) in responses to food vs. non-food pictures viewing. While we found no significant differences in the overall meta-analysis, we show that age significantly influences brain response differences to food cues in the left insula and the left fusiform gyrus. In the left insula, obese vs. lean brain differences in response to food cues decreased with age, while in the left fusiform gyrus the pattern was opposite. Our results suggest that there is little evidence for obesity-related differences in responses to food cues and that such differences might be mediated by additional factors that are often not considered.
Keywords: Obesity, cue reactivity, food cues, meta-analysis, fMRI
Abstract: Theoretical work suggests that obesity is related to enhanced incentive salience of food cues. However, evidence from both behavioral and neuroimaging studies on the topic is mixed. In this work we review the literature on cue reactivity in obesity and perform a preregistered meta-analysis of studies investigating effects of obesity on brain responses to passive food pictures viewing. Further, we examine whether age influences brain responses to food cues in obesity. In the meta-analysis we included 13 studies of children and adults that investigated group differences (obese vs. lean) in responses to food vs. non-food pictures viewing. While we found no significant differences in the overall meta-analysis, we show that age significantly influences brain response differences to food cues in the left insula and the left fusiform gyrus. In the left insula, obese vs. lean brain differences in response to food cues decreased with age, while in the left fusiform gyrus the pattern was opposite. Our results suggest that there is little evidence for obesity-related differences in responses to food cues and that such differences might be mediated by additional factors that are often not considered.
Keywords: Obesity, cue reactivity, food cues, meta-analysis, fMRI
Despite Australia’s skills-based immigration policy, immigrants report worse labor market outcomes than in the US; skills-based imm. policy don't result in more selected immigrants, nor in better integration
The Integration Paradox: Asian Immigrants in Australia and the United States. Van C. Tran, Fei Guo, Tiffany J. Huang. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, August 4, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220926974
Abstract: Whereas Australia has pursued a skills-based migration policy, the United States has privileged family-based migration. The key contrast between these migration regimes provides a rare test of how national immigration policy shapes immigrant selection and integration. Does a skills-based immigration regime result in a more select group of Asian immigrants in Australia compared to their counterparts in the United States? Are Asian immigrants more integrated into their host society in Australia compared to the United States? Focusing on four groups of Asian immigrants in both countries (Chinese, Indians, Filipinos, and Vietnamese), this article addresses these questions using a transpacific comparison. Despite Australia’s skills-based immigration policy, we find that Asian immigrants in Australia are less hyper-selected than their counterparts in the United States. Asian immigrants in Australia also report worse labor market outcomes than those in the United States, with the exception of Vietnamese—a refugee group. Altogether, these findings challenge the conventional wisdom that skills-based immigration policy not only results in more selected immigrants, but also positively influences their integration into the host society.
Keywords: skills-based migration, family-based migration, Asian immigrants, transpacific comparison, hyper-selectivity, labor market integration
Abstract: Whereas Australia has pursued a skills-based migration policy, the United States has privileged family-based migration. The key contrast between these migration regimes provides a rare test of how national immigration policy shapes immigrant selection and integration. Does a skills-based immigration regime result in a more select group of Asian immigrants in Australia compared to their counterparts in the United States? Are Asian immigrants more integrated into their host society in Australia compared to the United States? Focusing on four groups of Asian immigrants in both countries (Chinese, Indians, Filipinos, and Vietnamese), this article addresses these questions using a transpacific comparison. Despite Australia’s skills-based immigration policy, we find that Asian immigrants in Australia are less hyper-selected than their counterparts in the United States. Asian immigrants in Australia also report worse labor market outcomes than those in the United States, with the exception of Vietnamese—a refugee group. Altogether, these findings challenge the conventional wisdom that skills-based immigration policy not only results in more selected immigrants, but also positively influences their integration into the host society.
Keywords: skills-based migration, family-based migration, Asian immigrants, transpacific comparison, hyper-selectivity, labor market integration
Myths and Misconceptions About Hypnosis and Suggestion: Separating Fact and Fiction
Myths and Misconceptions About Hypnosis and Suggestion: Separating Fact and Fiction. Steven Jay Lynn Irving Kirsch Devin B. Terhune Joseph P. Green. Applied Cognitive Psychology, August 11 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3730
Summary: We present 21 prominent myths and misconceptions about hypnosis in order to promulgate accurate information and to highlight questions for future research. We argue that these myths and misconceptions have (a) fostered a skewed and stereotyped view of hypnosis among the lay public, (b) discouraged participant involvement in potentially helpful hypnotic interventions, and (c) impeded the exploration and application of hypnosis in scientific and practitioner communities. Myths reviewed span the view that hypnosis produces a trance or special state of consciousness and allied myths on topics related to hypnotic interventions; hypnotic responsiveness and the modification of hypnotic suggestibility; inducing hypnosis; and hypnosis and memory, awareness, and the experience of nonvolition. By demarcating myth from mystery and fact from fiction, and by highlighting what is known as well as what remains to be discovered, the science and practice of hypnosis can be advanced and grounded on a firmer empirical footing.
15. Hypnosis produces a sleep-like state
16. Hypnosis is like mindfulness
17. There are reliable markers of a hypnotic state
18. The perception of involuntariness during hypnosis is the product of a trance
19. People cannot resist or oppose hypnotic suggestions
20. Hypnosis is a reliable method to improve recent memories
Simons and Chabris (2011) reported that as many as 55.4% of the U.S. general public agreed that “Hypnosis is useful in helping witnesses accurately recall details of crimes.” However, although hypnosis can produce increases in accurate memories, increases in inaccurate memories (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Milling (2002). Courts in 27 states in the U.S. have barred admitting testimony based on concerns about false memories and unwarranted confidence in such memories (see Lynn, Boycheva, Deming, & Hallquist, 2009). For example, in 23 studies Lynn et al. (2009) reviewed, hypnotized individuals either expressed greater confidence in recollections during or after hypnosis compared with individuals who were not hypnotized, or hypnotized individuals expressed confidence in inaccurate memories regarding events they had previously denied (see Lynn et al., 2009). In an additional nine studies, participants in hypnotic and nonhypnotic conditions were equally confident in their recollections. However, in five of the studies, hypnosis engendered more errors or less accurate information on some or all measures, and in all but one of the remaining studies, there were no differences in hypnotic vs. nonhypnotic memory accuracy. The role of misleading questions in hypnotic versus nonhypnotic recall and the extent to which hypnosis impacts "don't know" responses and unanswerable questions remain unclear (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Milling, 2002; Scoboria et al., 2006; Scoboria, Mazzoni, & Kirsch, 2008). In sum, hypnosis is not a reliable recall enhancement tool (Mazzoni, Heap, & Scoboria, 2010).
21. Hypnotic age regression can retrieve accurate memories from the distant past
Summary: We present 21 prominent myths and misconceptions about hypnosis in order to promulgate accurate information and to highlight questions for future research. We argue that these myths and misconceptions have (a) fostered a skewed and stereotyped view of hypnosis among the lay public, (b) discouraged participant involvement in potentially helpful hypnotic interventions, and (c) impeded the exploration and application of hypnosis in scientific and practitioner communities. Myths reviewed span the view that hypnosis produces a trance or special state of consciousness and allied myths on topics related to hypnotic interventions; hypnotic responsiveness and the modification of hypnotic suggestibility; inducing hypnosis; and hypnosis and memory, awareness, and the experience of nonvolition. By demarcating myth from mystery and fact from fiction, and by highlighting what is known as well as what remains to be discovered, the science and practice of hypnosis can be advanced and grounded on a firmer empirical footing.
15. Hypnosis produces a sleep-like state
16. Hypnosis is like mindfulness
17. There are reliable markers of a hypnotic state
18. The perception of involuntariness during hypnosis is the product of a trance
19. People cannot resist or oppose hypnotic suggestions
20. Hypnosis is a reliable method to improve recent memories
Simons and Chabris (2011) reported that as many as 55.4% of the U.S. general public agreed that “Hypnosis is useful in helping witnesses accurately recall details of crimes.” However, although hypnosis can produce increases in accurate memories, increases in inaccurate memories (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Milling (2002). Courts in 27 states in the U.S. have barred admitting testimony based on concerns about false memories and unwarranted confidence in such memories (see Lynn, Boycheva, Deming, & Hallquist, 2009). For example, in 23 studies Lynn et al. (2009) reviewed, hypnotized individuals either expressed greater confidence in recollections during or after hypnosis compared with individuals who were not hypnotized, or hypnotized individuals expressed confidence in inaccurate memories regarding events they had previously denied (see Lynn et al., 2009). In an additional nine studies, participants in hypnotic and nonhypnotic conditions were equally confident in their recollections. However, in five of the studies, hypnosis engendered more errors or less accurate information on some or all measures, and in all but one of the remaining studies, there were no differences in hypnotic vs. nonhypnotic memory accuracy. The role of misleading questions in hypnotic versus nonhypnotic recall and the extent to which hypnosis impacts "don't know" responses and unanswerable questions remain unclear (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Milling, 2002; Scoboria et al., 2006; Scoboria, Mazzoni, & Kirsch, 2008). In sum, hypnosis is not a reliable recall enhancement tool (Mazzoni, Heap, & Scoboria, 2010).
21. Hypnotic age regression can retrieve accurate memories from the distant past
As hypothesized, individuals’ levels of basal testosterone were positively related to susceptibility to minority influence; in contrast, susceptibility to majority influence was unaffected by basal testosterone
Basal Testosterone Renders Individuals More Receptive to Minority Positions. Markus Germar, Andreas Mojzisch. Social Psychological and Personality Science, August 11, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620945116
Abstract: Social influence is an inevitable part of human social interaction. Although past research has demonstrated that testosterone has a key role in social interaction, no study has examined its role in social influence so far. Building on previous research showing that minority positions are perceived as risky options and that testosterone is positively associated with status seeking and risk-taking, we hypothesized that basal testosterone renders individuals more receptive to minority positions. In two studies, participants (total N = 250) read messages that were supported by either a numerical majority or minority. As hypothesized, individuals’ levels of basal testosterone were positively related to susceptibility to minority influence. In contrast, susceptibility to majority influence was unaffected by basal testosterone. Given the importance of minorities for innovation and change within societies, our results suggest that individuals with high levels of testosterone may play an important role as catalysts of social change.
Keywords: social influence, minority, majority, basal testosterone, social change
https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620945116
Abstract: Social influence is an inevitable part of human social interaction. Although past research has demonstrated that testosterone has a key role in social interaction, no study has examined its role in social influence so far. Building on previous research showing that minority positions are perceived as risky options and that testosterone is positively associated with status seeking and risk-taking, we hypothesized that basal testosterone renders individuals more receptive to minority positions. In two studies, participants (total N = 250) read messages that were supported by either a numerical majority or minority. As hypothesized, individuals’ levels of basal testosterone were positively related to susceptibility to minority influence. In contrast, susceptibility to majority influence was unaffected by basal testosterone. Given the importance of minorities for innovation and change within societies, our results suggest that individuals with high levels of testosterone may play an important role as catalysts of social change.
Keywords: social influence, minority, majority, basal testosterone, social change
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