Mask-wearing improved wearers’ sense of the attractiveness of faces, which were rated as less attractive when a mask was not worn after the onset of COVID-19; also, were rated as more healthy after onset

Effects of Masks Worn to Protect Against COVID-19 on the Perception of Facial Attractiveness. Miki Kamatani et al. i-Perception, June 27, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/20416695211027920

Abstract: Wearing a sanitary mask tended, in the main, to reduce the wearer’s sense of perceived facial attractiveness before the COVID-19 epidemic. This phenomenon, termed the sanitary-mask effect, was explained using a two-factor model involving the occlusion of cues used for the judgment of attractiveness and unhealthiness priming (e.g., presumed illness). However, these data were collected during the pre-COVID-19 period. Thus, in this study, we examined whether the COVID-19 epidemic changed the perceived attractiveness and healthiness when viewing faces with and without sanitary masks. We also used questionnaires to evaluate beliefs regarding mask wearers. We found that the perception of mask-worn faces differed before versus after the onset of the COVID-19 epidemic. Specifically, mask-wearing improved wearers’ sense of the attractiveness of faces, which were rated as less attractive when a mask was not worn after the onset of the COVID-19 epidemic. Furthermore, mask-worn faces were rated as healthier after the onset of the COVID-19. The proportion of respondents with negative associations regarding mask-wearing (e.g., unhealthiness) decreased relative to before the epidemic. We suggest that the weakening of this association altered the sanitary-mask effect with a relative emphasis on the occlusion component, reflecting the temporal impact of a global social incident (the COVID-19 epidemic) on the perception of facial attractiveness.

Keywords: sanitary mask, COVID-19, facial attractiveness, healthiness

General Discussion

In this study, we investigated the impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on beliefs regarding sanitary mask wearers as well as the perceived attractiveness of mask-worn faces by comparing data collected pre- and post-COVID-19-onset in Japan. Study 1 revealed that beliefs regarding sanitary mask wearers during the COVID-19 period differed from those in the pre-COVID-19 period. Specifically, the number of respondents who reported that they felt mask wearers were unhealthy decreased regardless of the mask color. Instead, the number of respondents who rated mask wearers as neutral or healthy increased. This change in belief was strengthened by the disappearance of the sanitary-mask effect after the onset of the epidemic, as shown in Study 2. During the pre-COVID-19 period, mask wearers were perceived as less attractive in general. This indicates that the discount in perception of attractiveness caused by mask-wearing was larger for baseline attractive faces and smaller or negligible for baseline unattractive faces (Miyazaki & Kawahara, 2016). This discounted perception did not occur for baseline unattractive faces in this study. Instead, for mask-worn faces, the perceived attractiveness ratings for baseline unattractive faces were higher.

This change in the perceived attractiveness of mask-worn faces can be explained by the reduced association between unhealthiness and sanitary masks. This reduction was supported by the results of Study 3, that is, that mask-worn faces were perceived as healthier after the onset of the COVID-19 epidemic compared with before the epidemic. Mask-worn faces were perceived as less healthy than no-mask faces regardless of the measurement period (before or after the onset of the epidemic). However, our data indicate that the association between mask-wearing and unhealthiness had weakened. We suggest that this reduction in the strength of the association was caused by the change of the purpose of mask use. Specifically, before the COVID-19 epidemic, masks were associated with personal medical problems experienced by the wearer, such as symptoms of illness (e.g., coughing or rhinorrhea) or allergies to pollen. After the onset of the epidemic, masks became associated with society-wide attempts to prevent the spread of COVID-19 infection and have become a social norm such that seeing mask-worn people may encourage an individual to wear a mask (Nakayachi et al., 2020).

Our results were consistent with the two-factor model of the sanitary-mask effect. Miyazaki and Kawahara (2016) provided converging evidence to support the model, which was proposed before the COVID-19 epidemic. Furthermore, prior to the onset of the epidemic, they predicted that removing the perception of unhealthiness associated with mask-wearing would reduce the negative impact on attractiveness ratings. To examine this possibility, they replaced a mask with a notebook and found that the results supported their prediction. They replicated this finding by replacing a mask with a card that occluded the same lower area of the face. The pattern they observed was similar to our finding in Study 2, which was consistent with the two-factor model.

Our data, along with those of previous studies, indicate that the mechanism underlying the modulation of attractiveness by mask-wearing is related to the occlusion of critical features. Occluding less attractive faces can hide negative features, such as asymmetric contours, imbalanced arrangements of facial features, and pimples. This could shift attractiveness ratings toward the average, and thus improve ratings for baseline unattractive faces. The opposite is true for attractive faces. Occluding attractive faces can hide positive features, such as symmetric contours, balanced arrangements of features, and smooth skin. This could shift attractiveness ratings toward the average, thus reducing ratings for baseline attractive faces. These ideas were supported by the findings of Study 2. Because the association between unhealthiness and mask-wearing had weakened after the onset of the COVID-19 epidemic, the effects of masks on ratings of perceived unhealthiness were similar to those of the notebooks and cards used to occlude faces in Miyazaki and Kawahara’s (2016; Experiments 3a, 3b, and 4) occlusion experiments. This mechanism may be related to recent findings that perceived facial attractiveness ratings improved when faces were partially occluded by vertical occluders or randomly scattered dots (Orghian & Hidalgo, 2020).

This study revealed the impact of a social incident, that is, the COVID-19 epidemic, on perceptions of attractiveness of mask-worn faces. Given that larger attitude shifts regarding support for politicians concerned about climate change were found in individuals who reported greater suffering from hurricanes (Rudman et al., 2013), our finding that beliefs and perceptions regarding the attractiveness and healthiness of mask-worn faces had already changed just months after the explicit onset of the COVID-19 epidemic in Japan (the first patient was found on January 16) implies that the magnitude of the impact is large. Accordingly, we expect that modulation of the sanitary-mask effect directly reflects the progress of the epidemic. In other words, this study demonstrated a contextual modulation of facial perception that took place over a short period of time. However, given that the context in which individuals view target faces can modulate facial attractiveness in a laboratory setting (e.g., varying the proportion of beard-worn vs. clean-shaven faces; Janif et al., 2014), the modulation observed in this study may change with the severity of the epidemic. Long-term measurements of beliefs and perceptions regarding mask-worn faces would provide more information regarding the impact of the epidemic on societies worldwide.

There are two limitations to this study. First, the three-way Period × Baseline attractiveness × Mask presence interaction was not significant, probably due to differences in the baseline conditions of the previous (Miyazaki & Kawahara, 2016) and present studies, although the trend indicated by the results was consistent with the predicted direction. Therefore, the impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on perceived attractiveness warrants careful interpretation and further examination. Second, the change in the purpose of mask use might have introduced a demand bias effect such that participants might have avoided saying that they found a given mask-wearing woman unattractive due to the social norms governing mask-wearing. The demand bias may explain the results for faces with low attractiveness scores, but this explanation is not applicable to faces with high attractiveness scores. Therefore, we believe that the present results cannot be solely attributed to demand bias. Nonetheless, this is a limitation of this study, although it was unavoidable.

Blatant sexual deception: No gender differences in overall rates of deception, though men were more deceptive regarding wealth and resources, occupation, and physical characteristics than women

Blatant sexual deception: Content, individual differences, and implications. Flora Oswald, Devinder Khera, Kari A. Walton, Cory L. Pedersen. Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 183, December 2021, 111118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111118

Abstract: Given current cultural attention to issues surrounding sexual consent, the issue of sexual deception is pertinent. The current study examined rates of different forms of blatant sexual deception (i.e., intentionally misleading sexual partners) with a focus on individual predictors including demographic correlates and traits of narcissism and sexual compulsivity. We sought to extend existing literature on sexual deception by examining novel forms of deception in a gender- and sexual orientation- diverse sample. Participants (N = 1769) aged 16 to 81 years (M = 26.60) took part in an online study. Results showed no gender differences in overall rates of deception, though men were more deceptive regarding wealth and resources, occupation, and physical characteristics than women. Sexual minorities reported higher rates of sexual deception than heterosexual participants pertaining to sexual orientation and previous partner gender. Participant scores on sexual narcissism and sexual compulsivity were significantly correlated with sexual deception scores. Findings are discussed in relation to how sexual deception can be understood and potentially intervened upon within current cultures of consent.

Keywords: NarcissismSexual compulsivityGenderSexual orientation

We report the first observation of a chimpanzee with albinism in the wild, describe interactions between the infant & other group members, & describe the subsequent infanticide of the individual with albinism by his conspecifics

First observation of a chimpanzee with albinism in the wild: Social interactions and subsequent infanticide. Maël Leroux, Gideon Monday, Bosco Chandia, John W. Akankwasa, Klaus Zuberbühler, Catherine Hobaiter, Catherine Crockford, Simon W. Townsend, Caroline Asiimwe, Pawel Fedurek. American Journal of Primatology, July 16 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23305

Research Highlights

Observations of wild non-human primates with albinism are extremely rare

We report the first observation of a chimpanzee with albinism in the wild

We describe interactions between the infant with albinism and other group members

We describe the subsequent infanticide of the individual with albinism

We discuss these observations in light of our understanding of chimpanzee behavior

Abstract: Albinism—the congenital absence of pigmentation—is a very rare phenomenon in animals due to the significant costs to fitness of this condition. Both humans and non-human individuals with albinism face a number of challenges, such as reduced vision, increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation, or compromised crypticity resulting in an elevated vulnerability to predation. However, while observations of social interactions involving individuals with albinism have been observed in wild non-primate animals, such interactions have not been described in detail in non-human primates (hereafter, primates). Here, we report, to our knowledge, the first sighting of an infant with albinism in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii), including social interactions between the infant, its mother, and group members. We also describe the subsequent killing of the infant by conspecifics as well as their behavior towards the corpse following the infanticide. Finally, we discuss our observations in relation to our understanding of chimpanzee behavior or attitudes towards individuals with very conspicuous appearances.

4 DISCUSSION

We describe here, to our knowledge, the first observation of a chimpanzee with albinism in a wild ape population. Importantly, we provide a unique account of interactions between the community members and the infant with albinism (and its mother) upon initial encounter and during the day of the infanticide.

The initial reaction of community members towards the infant appeared to be different from a typical situation in which chimpanzees encounter females with a newborn for the first time. Community members of both sexes often show signs of curiosity towards a newborn upon first sighting, such as grooming the mother or looking attentively at the newborn, touching, or grooming it (Goodall, 1986; Gideon Monday and Pawel Fedurek, personal observation). While individuals can respond to such events with excitement or aggression, particularly in the study community where infanticides are common (Lowe et al., 2019), interactions which included apparent fear towards a newborn are unusual and have not been observed to the same extent as seen on this occasion.

Although it is not possible to draw firm conclusions from this one observation, it appears that the encounter with the infant with albinism had an arousing effect on most adult community members. For example, even though some individuals responded calmly to the infant, most adult individuals seemed to react with fear upon encountering the newborn by keeping distance and producing alarm hoos and waa barks. In chimpanzees, these two call types are associated with risky, and potentially deadly situations, such as encountering snakes, bush pigs, or unfamiliar humans (Crockford et al., 2017; Goodall, 1986; Schel et al., 2013). Notably, this initial, apparently fearful, behavior was followed by physical aggression towards the infant and eventually death. In this respect, our observation shares similarities to those recorded in some bird species, where agonistic behaviors towards individuals with albinism were observed (Roberts, 1978).

The captive infant female chimpanzee Pinkie, the only other known chimpanzee with albinism, was captured alive in the wild as a newborn. However, it is not possible to establish how the original community members had reacted to, or interacted with, her before her capture (or whether they had seen her in the first place) as no such records before the capture exist. Similarly, the account of the successful introduction of Pinkie to a group of captive chimpanzees has not been published, which makes it difficult to establish whether and how an introduction of an infant with albinism to a group of stranger chimpanzees differs from an introduction of an in-group chimpanzee infant. We consider, therefore, our descriptive account of interactions of several conspecifics with an individual with albinism from the same wild community as unique.

The Sonso community has a history of infanticide committed by both adult males (Newton-Fisher, 1999) and, more rarely, females (Lowe et al., 2019; Townsend et al., 2007), which includes frequent within-community killings (Lowe et al., 2019). It is, therefore, possible that the infant with albinism would have become a victim of infanticide regardless of its appearance. The way the body was mutilated did not differ considerably from the way bodies of chimpanzee victims of within-community killings are often afflicted (Lowe et al., 2019; Wilson et al., 2014). For example, fingers of the right hand were bitten off, so was (partially) the left foot (see Supporting Information Material 3). However, the magnitude of the reaction some of the community members exhibited towards the infant with albinism makes it likely that the infant was not considered as a typical chimpanzee. The vigilant and even fearful behavior including alarm calling by individuals upon the initial exposure to the infant seems to support this idea.

Similarly, the careful and repeated inspection of the carcass by several individuals ranging from infants to adults of both sexes does not seem to be a typical behavior that chimpanzees direct towards a dead infant. Indeed, in contrast to our observation, most studies report that mainly the mother, and sometimes kin, initiate extended contact with a dead infant, sometimes displaying affiliative behaviors towards it, such as grooming (Biro et al., 2010; Cronin et al., 2011; Lonsdorf et al., 2020). Furthermore, in our study, one adult male was seen using his lips to pinch the hair of the dead infant, and several other individuals were seen stroking the hair of the carcass. Such behaviors have not been reported before in the context of infanticide in the Sonso community (Lowe et al., 2019; Catherine Crockford, personal observation), and could have been elicited by the unusual pigmentation of the infant. Indeed, the behavior of the chimpanzees towards the corpse of the infant with albinism resembles that of chimpanzees when presented with a novel object: Chimpanzees usually engage with such objects with initial caution followed by examining it carefully and touching it (Russell et al., 1997). However, some of the behaviors of group members towards the carcass of the infant with albinism, such as grooming it—a behavior previously described in this context in non-human primates including chimpanzees (Gonçalves & Carvalho, 2019), clearly indicate that the infant was not perceived by them as an object, but as a conspecific of an unusual appearance. However, since observations of chimpanzees interacting with individuals of atypical appearance are very rare, more data of this kind are needed to explore the cognitive mechanisms behind this behavior. Likewise, although our unique observations are potentially relevant to the understanding of chimpanzee death perception (e.g., Gonçalves & Carvalho, 2019), more data of this kind are needed to investigate the cognitive processes underlying it.

The inspection of the carcass by individuals often focused on the anogenital regions, with several individuals inserting their fingers into the anus of the carcass. To our knowledge, only one observation of this kind has been made in chimpanzees before: An adult female inserting a digit in the anus of the former alpha male dead body (Pruetz et al., 2017). In our study, both adult and infant males were seen inserting a digit in the anus of the infant with albinism. Several mammal species possess anal glands that play a role in olfactory communication. For example, anal gland secretion conveys information about kinship in beavers (Castor canadensis) (Sun & Müller-Schwarze, 1998) and lemurs (Lemur catta) (Charpentier et al., 2010). In spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), individuals discriminate identity and social status of a conspecific through anal gland scent (Burgener et al., 2009), whereas black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) can differentiate sex and age using gland scent (Linklater et al., 2013). Chimpanzees also use olfactory communication when identifying the recent presence of individuals from other communities in their territory (Henkel & Setchell, 2018). Furthermore, another study on chimpanzees reported an observation of the mother and another adult female bringing their hands towards their face after touching a dead infant as if to gain information about its body (Cronin et al., 2011). Our observation potentially indicates that olfactory cues were used to gain information about the infant with albinism because, for example, it was not perceived by conspecifics as a typical individual or an individual from their own territory.

Although in some species individuals with albinism tend to have smaller body sizes (Slagsvold et al., 1988), the size of the infant in this study was normal considering its estimated 3 weeks of age. Autopsy results did not reveal any apparent major health issues and, during the initial encounter, the infant appeared to behave normally. Thus, we have no observations that suggest that the peculiar behavior of the chimpanzees towards the infant, or its carcass, were driven by any potential morphological abnormalities of the body except its coloration. It is important to note, however, that histopathology tests on the carcass were not conducted, and therefore, we do not have detailed information about the infant's health. The white coloration of the infant bears similarities to that of black and white colobus monkey (Colobus guereza) infants that Budongo chimpanzees often prey on (Reynolds, 2005). Therefore, another intriguing possibility is that the infant's pattern of coloration matched features of this community “prey image” (Uehara, 1997), but with the form and odor of a chimpanzee and this incongruence could explain the behavior of some of the individuals towards the infant.

To conclude, we provide a unique account of behaviors of wild chimpanzees towards an infant with albinism before and following its death. Our observations provide insights into chimpanzee behavior in extremely rare social circumstances.

Beauty Thesis: How Skin Tone and Beauty Rankings Interact in Labor Market Outcomes

Beauty Thesis: How Skin Tone and Beauty Rankings Interact in Labor Market Outcomes. Isabel Queen. Haverford College, Department of Economic. Thesis, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/10066/23568

Abstract: This paper looks at the effects of beauty and skin tone on income using data from the General Social Survey. Beauty premiums and skin tone penalties exist and have a significant impact on labor market outcomes. More beautiful people make more money, and darker skin-toned people make less money. Black men show the largest beauty premium. This research suggests that the effect of looks on income becomes even greater as skin tone is darker. White respondents show a skin tone penalty for both males and females. Industry and service jobs show significant beauty premiums, and the service industry shows a skin tone penalty. This research suggests that grooming is more significant than looks in determining income in all groups except black men.

Aggression-related sexual fantasies are a frequent phenomenon even in the general population and among women and show strong associations with sexual aggression

Bondü R, Birke JB, Aggression-Related Sexual Fantasies: Prevalence Rates, Sex Differences, and Links With Personality, Attitudes, and Behavior. J Sex Med 2021;XX:XXX–XXX. Jul 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.06.006

Abstract

Background: Aggression-related sexual fantasies (ASF) are considered an important risk factor for sexual aggression, but empirical knowledge is limited, in part because previous research has been based on predominantly male, North-American college samples, and limited numbers of questions.

Aim: The present study aimed to foster the knowledge about the frequency and correlates of ASF, while including a large sample of women and a broad range of ASF.

Method: A convenience sample of N = 664 participants from Germany including 508 (77%) women and 156 (23%) men with a median age of 25 (21–27) years answered an online questionnaire. Participants were mainly recruited via social networks (online and in person) and were mainly students. We examined the frequencies of (aggression-related) sexual fantasies and their expected factor structure (factors reflecting affective, experimental, masochistic, and aggression-related contents) via exploratory factor analysis. We investigated potential correlates (eg, psychopathic traits, attitudes towards sexual fantasies) as predictors of ASF using multiple regression analyses. Finally, we examined whether ASF would positively predict sexual aggression beyond other pertinent risk factors using multiple regression analysis.

Outcomes: The participants rated the frequency of a broad set of 56 aggression-related and other sexual fantasies, attitudes towards sexual fantasies, the Big Five (ie, broad personality dimensions including neuroticism and extraversion), sexual aggression, and other risk factors for sexual aggression.

Results: All participants reported non-aggression-related sexual fantasies and 77% reported at least one ASF in their lives. Being male, frequent sexual fantasies, psychopathic traits, and negative attitudes towards sexual fantasies predicted more frequent ASF. ASF were the strongest predictor of sexual aggression beyond other risk factors, including general aggression, psychopathic traits, rape myth acceptance, and violent pornography consumption.

Clinical Translation: ASF may be an important risk factor for sexual aggression and should be more strongly considered in prevention and intervention efforts.

Strengths and Limitations: The strengths of the present study include using a large item pool and a large sample with a large proportion of women in order to examine ASF as a predictor of sexual aggression beyond important control variables. Its weaknesses include the reliance on cross-sectional data, that preclude causal inferences, and not continuously distinguishing between consensual and non-consensual acts.

Conclusion: ASF are a frequent phenomenon even in the general population and among women and show strong associations with sexual aggression. Thus, they require more attention by research on sexual aggression and its prevention.

Are people in bigger cities less ethical human beings? Evidence on urban living and moral values

Are people in bigger cities less ethical human beings? Evidence on urban living and moral values. Eric A. Morris, Deirdre Pfeiffer, John Gaber. Cities, Volume 117, October 2021, 103327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103327

Highlights

• Crime and disorder are higher in more urbanized places.

• Those in more urbanized places tend to be more tolerant of others.

• Those in more urbanized places are less likely to be religious.

• Those in more urbanized places are less likely to participate in charities.

• Those in more urbanized places place more emphasis on individualism and independence.

Abstract: How might rising urbanization be affecting ethical norms and beliefs? This paper uses new World Values Survey data from 40 countries to answer this question. We find that living in more populous places is associated with greater exposure to crime and neighborhood disorder, lower likelihood of membership in charitable organizations, and lower religiosity. Residents of more populous places are no more likely to approve of ethically questionable behavior surrounding violence or money but may be more permissive in terms of sexual behavior. Contrary to the stereotype, we find no link between city size and the perceived importance of family. When imparting values to children, those in more populous places emphasize personal responsibility, individualism, and determination more, and obedience and work less. Finally, residents of more populous places are more tolerant of groups such as gays, immigrants, and those of other nationalities and religions. In all, bigger city ethics are associated with greater independence and personal freedom, though this may be both a good thing (greater tolerance of differences) and a bad one (higher crime).

Keywords: UrbanismUrban/ruralEthicsCity sizeValuesDeveloping world

Conservatives report more positive attitudes toward viewpoint diversity in their communities; liberals report more positive attitudes toward demographic diversity

On the Varieties of Diversity: Ideological Variations in Attitudes Toward, and Understandings of Diversity. Kathryn A. Howard, Daniel Cervone, Matthew Motyl. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, July 16, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211028141

Abstract: Three studies explore the possibility that attitudes toward “diversity” are multidimensional rather than unidimensional and that ideological differences in diversity attitudes vary as a function of diversity subtype. Study 1 (n = 1,001) revealed that the factor structure of attitudes toward 23 diverse community features was bidimensional. Factors involving demographic and viewpoint diversity emerged. Conservatives reported more positive attitudes toward viewpoint diversity, and liberals more positive attitudes toward demographic diversity. Study 2 (n = 1,012) replicated Study 1 findings, and extended Study 1 results by showing attitudes toward the general concept of diversity predicted attitudes toward demographic diversity but not viewpoint diversity. In Study 3, 386 participants rated how relevant a set of features was to their prototypical understanding of diversity. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed people discriminate between viewpoint, demographic, and consumer diversity. Conservatives perceived viewpoint features as more relevant to “diversity,” whereas liberals perceived demographic features as more relevant.

Keywords: diversity, ideology, attitudes, prototypes, politics

Across 195 countries, rates of depressive disorders in women & men are higher among islanders (relative to mainlanders) at more northern locations in the Northern Hemisphere & at more southern locations in the South'n Hemisph

Who is more prone to depression at higher latitudes? Islanders or mainlanders? Van de Vliert, Evert; Rentfrow, Peter Jason. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), [100012]. Jul 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100012

Abstract: Across 195 countries, rates of depressive disorders in women and men are higher among islanders (relative to mainlanders) at more northern locations in the Northern Hemisphere and at more southern locations in the Southern Hemisphere. Our explanatory analyses show that the three-way interaction of greater daylength variability, being more of an islander, and adopting a more individualistic culture accounts for higher rates of depression in both genders. Differences in longitude, photoperiod, phase shift, disaster risk, economic poverty, income inequality, and urbanization level do not appear to account for the oppositely sloping north-south gradients of depression above and below the equator.

6. Discussion

Nowhere in textbooks do we learn that the world’s mental depression rates have a north-south rather than east-west distribution. Nor are we informed about the existence of a U-curve distribution of depression between the north and south poles. The present results help fill these gaps in our knowledge, highlighting the remarkable fact that the equator-topole increases in depression in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere are steeper for islanders than mainlanders. This tends to hold even for men, who have always had, and continue to have, lower rates of major depression than women in all countries on Earth (cf. Andrade et al., 2003; Mersch et al., 1999; Weissman et al., 1996). The two distinct generalizations—across hemispheres and genders—lend considerable credibility to the conclusion that islanders relative to mainlanders are more prone to depression at higher latitudes. This conclusion could be further strengthened by within-country replications. Biogeographers will not be surprised by this finding as they have known for a long time about the special relationships between islands and illnesses (Harcourt, 2012, 2015). They speak of island rules to describe and explain how plants, animals, and humans on islands differ biologically from plants, animals, and humans on the mainland. One such rule is that infectious diseases in humans have flatter latitudinal gradients across island locations with sea climates than across mainland locations with continental climates (Cashdan, 2014). The new island rule developed here can be summarized as steeper equator-to-pole increases in rates of depression among islanders than among mainlanders. While it is hard to come up with an explanation for this geography of depression, there are at least five reasons to believe in the existence of a worldwide ecology of depression modulated by habitat differences in daylength and islandness. First, in common with the variability in daylength—and thus in photoperiod, phase shift, seasonal temperatures, daily rainfall, plant growth, and animal life—rates of depression fail to vary along the Earth’s east-west axis, pointing to a latitude- rather than longituderelated explanation of depression. Second, among islanders, and especially so among individualistic female islanders, increases in daylength variability tend to go hand in hand with increases in rates of depression. Third, among mainlanders, and especially so among collectivistic mainlanders, increases in daylength variability tend to go hand in hand with decreases instead of increases in rates of depression. Fourth, photoperiod (Lingjaerde et al., 1986; Potkin et al., 1986; Young et al., 1997) and phase shift (Avery et al., 1997; Lewy et al., 1984; Rosenthal and Wehr, 1992) cannot account for the oppositely sloping latitudinal gradients of depression among islanders and mainlanders. Finally, people who live at higher latitudes or on islands and clear peninsulas tend to have more individualistic cultures that make them more prone to depression (cf. Draguns, 1997; Hofstede, 2001; TanakaMatsumi and Draguns, 1997). Our reading of this finding is that individualistic cultures serve as double-edged swords. Daylength variability and islandness regularly disturb life and activities so that control has to be restored by using internal agency and creating internal structure (Friesen et al., 2014; Kay and Eibach, 2013; Whitson and Galinsky, 2008). On the one hand, these active control-restoring strategies in individualistic cultures leave the large majority of higher-latitude inhabitants and islanders more creative and happier in consequence (cf. Van de Vliert and Van Lange, 2019). On the other hand, one might speculate that a small minority of higher-latitude inhabitants and islanders may passively fall back on adopting overly simple and stable interpretations of the ordered environment that are unrelated to the controlreducing events (e.g., believing society is systematically divided into haves and have-nots; Landau et al., 2015). Future research may seek to show that this minority tends to use maladaptive control-restoring strategies associated with depressive feelings of hopelessness and helplessness rather than elated feelings of happiness. These explanatory considerations should be read in the knowledge that the geography and ecology of depression cannot be convincingly studied in a controlled laboratory setting. Thus, cause and effect cannot be inferred, so that further investigations are needed to exclude rival explanations in terms of, for example, the greater exposure of higherlatitude inhabitants to insufficient ultraviolet radiation and cold stress. Mitigating this drawback is the almost axiomatic assumption that rates of depression in women and men cannot have caused widely different degrees of daylength variability and territorial water borders. Hence, there is a causal quality to our robust relationship: the only possible direction of impact is from daylength variability and islandness to depression. The same latitude-by-longitude design with nested islandness can be employed to explore the geography and ecology of, for example, treatment for depression (Smits and Huijts, 2015), control of neglected tropical diseases (Garchitorena et al., 2017), and disparities between islanders and mainlanders in healthy behaviors such as consumption of fruits/vegetables and abstinence of tobacco/alcohol use (Taylor et al., 2018). That causation cannot be firmly established is not the only shortcoming of the proposed explanation of islanders’ and mainlanders’ rates of depression at higher latitudes. Additionally, the proposed mediating mechanism of the maladaptive control-restoring strategy of adopting overly simple and stable interpretations of the ordered environment (Landau et al., 2015) was not measured and analyzed. Mitigating this weakness is the complicating fact that a viable alternative theory should explain why the higher rates of depression at higher latitudes hold for islanders more than for mainlanders (Fig. 1). No alternative theory that we know of does so. The potentially confounding effects of disaster risk, economic poverty, income inequality, and urbanization level have been ruled out. As a result, this article provides novel evidence that brings global geography and ecology together to better understand why some populations are more depressive than others. Given the importance of depression for healthy human functioning, this is no small gap to fill.

The human sleep pattern is paradoxical: Sleep is vital for optimal physical and cognitive performance, yet humans sleep the least of all primates; short, high-quality, and flexibly timed sleep likely originated as a response to predation risks

The Human Sleep Paradox: The Unexpected Sleeping Habits of Homo sapiens. David R. Samson. Annual Review of Anthropology  Volume 50, 2021, online on July 13, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-010220-075523

Abstract: The human sleep pattern is paradoxical. Sleep is vital for optimal physical and cognitive performance, yet humans sleep the least of all primates. In addition, consolidated and continuous monophasic sleep is evidently advantageous, yet emerging comparative data sets from small-scale societies show that the phasing of the human pattern of sleep–wake activity is highly variable and characterized by significant nighttime activity. To reconcile these phenomena, the social sleep hypothesis proposes that extant traits of human sleep emerged because of social and technological niche construction. Specifically, sleep sites function as a type of social shelter by way of an extended structure of social groups that increases fitness. Short, high-quality, and flexibly timed sleep likely originated as a response to predation risks while sleeping terrestrially. This practice may have been a necessary preadaptation for migration out of Africa and for survival in ecological niches that penetrate latitudes with the greatest seasonal variation in light and temperature on the planet.

Complicated relationship between Machiavellianism and social-cognitive skill: Machiavellianism encompasses features that blend deficiency, proficiency, and average levels of social-cognitive skills

Hart, W., Breeden, C. J., & Kinrade, C. (2021). Re-conceptualizing Machiavellianism and social-cognitive skills: Machiavellianism blends deficient, proficient, and average social-cognitive skills. Journal of Individual Differences, 42(3), 140–147, Jul 2021. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000340

Abstract: Machiavellianism is presumed to encompass advanced social-cognitive skill, but research has generally suggested that Machiavellian individuals are rather deficient in social-cognitive skill. However, previous research on the matter has been limited to measures of (a) Machiavellianism that are unidimensional and saturated with both antagonism and disinhibition and measures (b) only one type of social-cognitive skill. Using a large college sample (N = 461), we examined how various dimensions of Machiavellianism relate to two types of social-cognitive skill: person-perception skill and general social prediction skill. Consistent with some prior theorizing, the planful dimension of Machiavellianism was positively related to both person-perception and general social prediction skills; antagonistic dimensions of Machiavellianism were negatively related to both skills; either agentic or cynical dimensions of Machiavellianism were generally unrelated to both skills. Overall, the current evidence suggests a complicated relationship between Machiavellianism and social-cognitive skill because Machiavellianism encompasses features that blend deficiency, proficiency, and average levels of social-cognitive skills. 

What Makes a Champion? Early Multidisciplinary Practice, Not Early Specialization, Predicts World-Class Performance

What Makes a Champion? Early Multidisciplinary Practice, Not Early Specialization, Predicts World-Class Performance. Arne Güllich, Brooke N. Macnamara, David Z. Hambrick. Perspectives on Psychological Science, July 14, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620974772

Abstract: What explains the acquisition of exceptional human performance? Does a focus on intensive specialized practice facilitate excellence, or is a multidisciplinary practice background better? We investigated this question in sports. Our meta-analysis involved 51 international study reports with 477 effect sizes from 6,096 athletes, including 772 of the world’s top performers. Predictor variables included starting age, age of reaching defined performance milestones, and amounts of coach-led practice and youth-led play (e.g., pickup games) in the athlete’s respective main sport and in other sports. Analyses revealed that (a) adult world-class athletes engaged in more childhood/adolescent multisport practice, started their main sport later, accumulated less main-sport practice, and initially progressed more slowly than did national-class athletes; (b) higher performing youth athletes started playing their main sport earlier, engaged in more main-sport practice but less other-sports practice, and had faster initial progress than did lower performing youth athletes; and (c) youth-led play in any sport had negligible effects on both youth and adult performance. We illustrate parallels from science: Nobel laureates had multidisciplinary study/working experience and slower early progress than did national-level award winners. The findings suggest that variable, multidisciplinary practice experiences are associated with gradual initial discipline-specific progress but greater sustainability of long-term development of excellence.

Keywords: skill acquisition, performance, practice, early specialization, meta-analysis

From 2020... Art, Music, and Literature: Do the Humanities Make Our Lives Richer, Happier, and More Meaningful?

From 2020... Westgate, Erin C. 2020. “Art, Music, and Literature: Do the Humanities Make Our Lives Richer, Happier, and More Meaningful?” PsyArXiv. April 25. doi:10.31234/osf.io/gsnzm

Abstract: For many, there is little more rewarding than the feeling of curling up with a good book, wandering a famous art gallery, or listening to a favorite musician perform live in front of an audience. But do the arts, music, and literature actually make our lives happier, richer, and more meaningful? We suggest they do. In this chapter, we review empirical evidence for the psychological benefits of the humanities, including art, music, and literature, and find that across a wide variety of samples, exposure and engagement is consistently linked to greater well-being. In particular, we suggest that the humanities may increase well-being directly by providing people with enjoyable, rich, and meaningful experiences, as well as indirectly by fostering skills and abilities that contribute to psychological well-being in the long-term. These approaches map onto two mechanisms: 1) direct affective benefits that create enjoyable, rich, and interesting experiences, and 2) indirect cognitive benefits, including social abilities and motivations that promote subjective well-being via interpersonal connection and self- and emotion-regulation. Art, music, and literature may not only provide temporary nourishment for a good life, but teach people lasting skills they can capitalize on to increase long-term well-being.

Check also Lay Beliefs about Meaning in Life: Examinations Across Targets, Time, and Countries. Samantha J. Heintzelman et al. Journal of Research in Personality, August 1 2020, 104003. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2020/08/lay-beliefs-about-meaning-in-life.html

Meaning and Evolution: Why Nature Selected Human Minds to Use Meaning. Roy F. Baumeister and William von Hippel. Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture, Vol. 4, No. 1, Symposium on Meaning and Evolution (Spring 2020), pp. 1-18. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2020/05/the-scientific-worldview-suggested-that.html

Happiness, Meaning, and Psychological Richness. Shigehiro Oishi, Hyewon Choi, Minkyung Koo, Iolanda Galinha, Keiko Ishii, Asuka Komiya, Maike Luhmann, Christie Scollon, Ji-eun Shin, Hwaryung Lee, Eunkook M. Suh, Joar Vittersّ, Samantha J. Heintzelman, Kostadin Kushlev, Erin C. Westgate, Nicholas Buttrick, Jane Tucker, Charles R. Ebersole, Jordan Axt, Elizabeth Gilbert, Brandon W. Ng, Jaime Kurtz & Lorraine L. Besser . Affective Science volume 1, pages107–115, Jun 23 2020. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2020/06/investigating-whether-some-people.html

A large literature characterizes urbanisation as resulting from productivity growth attracting rural workers to cities; these authors think it is in reverse: when rural workers move to cities, the resulting urbanisation yields productivity growth

Urbanisation and the Onset of Modern Economic Growth. Liam Brunt, Cecilia García-Peñalosa. The Economic Journal, ueab050, June 30 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab050

Abstract: A large literature characterizes urbanisation as resulting from productivity growth attracting rural workers to cities. Incorporating economic geography elements into a growth model, we suggest that causation runs the other way: when rural workers move to cities, the resulting urbanisation produces technological change and productivity growth. Urban density leads to knowledge exchange and innovation, thus creating a positive feedback loop between city size and productivity that initiates sustained economic growth. This model is consistent with the fact that urbanisation rates in Western Europe, most notably England, reached unprecedented levels by the mid-18th century, the eve of the Industrial Revolution.

Mate copying (the increased probability of preferring an individual as a mate, as a result of them having been chosen by same-sex peers previously), does not shows in having a lot of Facebook opposite-sex friends

Non-Independent Mate Choice in Humans: An Investigation of Online Mate Choice Copying and Sex Differences. Cagla Tekin & Ryan C. Anderson. Evolutionary Psychological Science, Jul 15 2021. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-021-00291-z

Abstract: Mate copying (MC) refers to the increased probability of preferring an individual as a mate, as a result of them having been chosen by same-sex peers previously. How changes in the world, such as the increased use of social networking sites, affect MC has not received much attention. Participants were shown photographs of opposite-sex target individuals, and told that the profiles had a high, moderate, or low number of opposite-sex Facebook friends. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that opposite-sex profiles were considered the most desirable when no information was given about thegender distribution of their Facebook friends. Both men and women found opposite-sex profiles to be least desirable when they had a high number of opposite-sex friends. The findings contribute to the literature by providing further information about the mate selection processes for both sexes, and how social networking sites have changed the way interpersonal relationships are formed. 

Wellcome skepticism... Neither prediction markets (nor surveys) performed well in predicting outcomes for DARPA's Next Generation Social Science programme

Using prediction markets to predict the outcomes in the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's next-generation social science programme. Domenico Viganola, Grant Buckles, Yiling Chen, Pablo Diego-Rosell, Magnus Johannesson, Brian A. Nosek, Thomas Pfeiffer, Adam Siegel and Anna Dreber. Royal Society Open Science, July 14 2021. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.181308

Abstract: There is evidence that prediction markets are useful tools to aggregate information on researchers' beliefs about scientific results including the outcome of replications. In this study, we use prediction markets to forecast the results of novel experimental designs that test established theories. We set up prediction markets for hypotheses tested in the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA) Next Generation Social Science (NGS2) programme. Researchers were invited to bet on whether 22 hypotheses would be supported or not. We define support as a test result in the same direction as hypothesized, with a Bayes factor of at least 10 (i.e. a likelihood of the observed data being consistent with the tested hypothesis that is at least 10 times greater compared with the null hypothesis). In addition to betting on this binary outcome, we asked participants to bet on the expected effect size (in Cohen's d) for each hypothesis. Our goal was to recruit at least 50 participants that signed up to participate in these markets. While this was the case, only 39 participants ended up actually trading. Participants also completed a survey on both the binary result and the effect size. We find that neither prediction markets nor surveys performed well in predicting outcomes for NGS2.

4. Discussion

In this project, we find little evidence that researchers can predict outcomes of the hypotheses tested in NGS2. Whether this is due to the relatively small sample of hypotheses (N = 22), participants (N = 39) or the type of hypotheses tested is unclear. Here, unlike in most previous work, participants predicted tests from Bayesian analyses—whether this contributes to the poor performance of the markets and surveys is also unclear. An important difference compared with the previous prediction markets studies on direct replications is also that the original study p-value is an important predictor of replication outcomes, but such information is by definition not available for predicting the NGS2 outcomes, making it a more challenging prediction task for forecasters. Given the previously observed success in experts predicting novel outcomes with forecasting surveys (e.g. [20]), it may be the case that prediction markets function better for replication outcomes relative to forecasting surveys—more work on this topic would be needed for more definitive conclusions.

The current literature on satisfaction in interracial relationships as less satisfied than intraracial relationships may be a reflection of publication bias in which statistically significant differences are published

Differences in Satisfaction? A Meta-Analytic Review of Interracial and Intraracial Relationships. James E. Brooks. Marriage & Family Review, Jul 14 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2021.1937443

Abstract: Empirical investigations on whether there is a difference in relationship satisfaction for partners in interracial compared to intraracial relationships offer contradictory conclusions. The current study reviewed investigations of differences in satisfaction using a meta-analysis to determine whether and under what circumstances there is a difference in relationship satisfaction. Individual, dyadic, environmental, and methodological variations in study participants and designs were explored as potential moderators. Using estimates of effect size d, no overall difference in relationship satisfaction was found between intraracial and interracial relationships. The examination of the moderators revealed that sample size and geographic location of the study impacted whether differences were detected, but most tests for moderation indicated no differences. These conclusions suggest that the current literature on satisfaction in interracial relationships as less satisfied than intraracial relationships may be a reflection of publication bias in which statistically significant differences are published.

Keywords: interracialmarriagemeta-analysisromantic relationshipssatisfaction

Sociosexuality, comfort with sex outside the confines of a committed relationship, and parent–child dynamics have been associated with experiences of sex guilt

The Experience of Sex Guilt: The Roles of Parenting, Adult Attachment, and Sociosexuality. Jana M. Hackathorn & Esther Malm. Sexuality & Culture, Jul 9 2021. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12119-021-09887-w

Abstract: Sociosexuality, comfort with sex outside the confines of a committed relationship, and parent–child dynamics have been associated with experiences of sex guilt. However, the mechanisms through which family dynamics are related to sociosexuality and sex guilt are still unclear. Using a developmental framework, in a cross-sectional study, we examined whether attachment styles and parent–child relationships would be associated with the development and maintenance of sociosexuality. We hypothesized that insecure attachment styles and sociosexuality would independently and positively mediate the relationship between parent–child relationship quality (accepting/rejecting) and sex guilt. Findings support past research and suggests that parental rejection predicts insecure attachments, which positively predicts unrestricted sociosexuality, and in turn, is negatively associated with sex guilt. This could suggest that sociosexuality may act as a buffer for sex guilt among this sample.

The cultural success of folk beliefs about the economy is predictable if we consider the influence of specialized, largely automatic inference systems that evolved as adaptations to ancestral human small-scale sociality

Folk-Economic Beliefs: An Evolutionary Cogniti­­ve Model. With Michael Bang Petersen. In Human Cultures through the Scientific Lens: Essays in Evolutionary Cognitive Anthropology. By Pascal Boyer. https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0257.09

Abstract: The domain of ‘folk-economics’ consists in explicit beliefs about the economy held by laypeople, untrained in economics, about such topics as, for example, the causes of the wealth of nations, the benefits or drawbacks of markets and international trade, the effects of regulation, the origins of inequality, the connection between work and wages, the economic consequences of immigration, or the possible causes of unemployment. These beliefs are crucial in forming people’s political beliefs and in shaping their reception of different policies. Yet, they often conflict with elementary principles of economic theory and are often described as the consequences of ignorance, irrationality, or specific biases. As we will argue, these past perspectives fail to predict the particular contents of popular folk-economic beliefs and, as a result, there is no systematic study of the cognitive factors involved in their emergence and cultural success. Here we propose that the cultural success of particular beliefs about the economy is predictable if we consider the influence of specialized, largely automatic inference systems that evolved as adaptations to ancestral human small-scale sociality. These systems, for which there is independent evidence, include free-rider detection, fairness-based partner choice, ownership intuitions, coalitional psychology, and more. Information about modern mass-market conditions activates these specific inference systems, resulting in particular intuitions, for example, that impersonal transactions are dangerous or that international trade is a zero-sum game. These intuitions in turn make specific policy proposals more likely than others to become intuitively compelling, and, as a consequence, exert a crucial influence on political choices.

Both organisational & societal conspiracy beliefs are associated with sensation seeking (a preference for exciting and intense experiences); one reason why people believe conspiracy theories is because they find them entertaining

The entertainment value of conspiracy theories. Jan-Willem van Prooijen, Joline Ligthart, Sabine Rosema, Yang Xu. British Journal of Psychology, July 14 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12522

Abstract: Many citizens around the globe believe conspiracy theories. Why are conspiracy theories so appealing? Here, we propose that conspiracy theories elicit intense emotions independent of emotional valence. People therefore find conspiracy theories entertaining – that is, narratives that people perceive as interesting, exciting, and attention-grabbing – and such entertainment appraisals are positively associated with belief in them. Five studies supported these ideas. Participants were exposed to either a conspiratorial or a non-conspiratorial text about the Notre Dame fire (Study 1) or the death of Jeffrey Epstein (preregistered Study 2). The conspiratorial text elicited stronger entertainment appraisals and intense emotions (independent of emotional valence) than the non-conspiratorial text; moreover, entertainment appraisals mediated the effects of the manipulation on conspiracy beliefs. Study 3 indicated that participants endorsed stronger conspiracy beliefs when an election event was described in an entertaining rather than a boring manner. Subsequent findings revealed that both organisational (Study 4) and societal conspiracy beliefs (Study 5) are positively associated with sensation seeking – a trait characterised by a preference for exciting and intense experiences. We conclude that one reason why people believe conspiracy theories is because they find them entertaining.

General discussion

The psychology of belief in conspiracy theories suggests a paradox: Conspiracy beliefs have harmful implications for perceivers and their social environment, yet many people hold such beliefs (Butter & Knight, 2020; Douglas et al., 2017; Jolley & Douglas, 2014a, 2014b; Van Prooijen, 2018; Van Prooijen & Douglas, 2018). The present research sought to illuminate that conspiracy theories have a psychological payoff for perceivers: People often perceive conspiracy theories as entertaining, which facilitates belief in them. Results of five studies are consistent with this notion. Studies 1 and 2 manipulated exposure to a conspiracy theory (about the Notre Dame fire and Jeffrey Epstein), and results revealed that entertainment appraisals mediated the effects of conspiracy exposure on conspiracy belief. Study 3 manipulated how entertaining or boring a description of an election event was, and this manipulation shaped conspiracy beliefs. Studies 4 and 5 investigated the implications of these insights for the personality trait sensation seeking, which was associated with both belief in organisational conspiracy theories (Study 4) and societal conspiracy theories (Study 5). Together, these studies support the idea that conspiracy theories have entertainment value, which helps explain belief in such theories.

Three more specific theoretical contributions for the emerging research domain of conspiracy beliefs follow from the present research. First, the present studies provide a novel answer to the question why conspiracy theories are so widespread in society. While we do not dispute that, quite often, conspiracy theories emerge from aversive experiences (e.g., societal crisis situations), the present studies expand on a range of recent finding suggesting that conspiracy beliefs sometimes also may have psychological benefits: Belief in conspiracy theories is associated with feeling unique and special (Imhoff & Lamberty, 2017; Lantian et al., 2017), an inflated evaluation of the self (i.e., narcissism; Cichocka et al., 2016) and an inflated evaluation of the groups that are central to a perceiver’s identity (i.e., collective narcissism; Golec de Zavala & Cichocka, 2012; Golec de Zavala & Federico, 2018). But while these previous findings clarify how conspiracy theories may be positively related with people’s self-perception and identity, the present research adds to these findings by revealing that people also may perceive conspiracy theories as entertaining – that is, interesting, exciting, and attention-grabbing narratives.

Second, and relatedly, the present research suggests that not necessarily negative emotions, but rather, intense emotional experiences predict conspiracy beliefs. While the majority of studies have focused on negative feelings and emotions to explain conspiracy beliefs (Grzesiak-Feldman, 2013; Kofta et al., 2020; Newheiser et al., 2011; Van Prooijen, 2016; Van Prooijen & Acker, 2015; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008), research suggests that also various positive emotions can increase conspiracy beliefs (Whitson et al., 2015). Emotional intensity (independent of valence) may reconcile these previous findings, and provides a novel perspective on the role of emotions in conspiracy beliefs. Third, Studies 3 to 5 of the current contribution make the novel point that particularly people scoring high on sensation seeking are susceptible to conspiracy theories. These findings extend previous findings that conspiracy beliefs are associated with the narrower construct susceptibility to boredom (Brotherton & Eser, 2015), and contributes to a body of research suggesting that stable individual difference variables predict people’s susceptibility to conspiracy theories (e.g., Cichocka et al., 2016; Swami et al., 2011). Moreover, Study 3 suggests that particularly people high on sensation seeking associate conspiracy theories with entertainment, underscoring the more general point that the link between situational cues and conspiracy theories are often moderated by other contingencies such as individual difference variables.

The present findings also have broader implications for the role of negative affect in human cognition and behaviour. Feelings of anxiety, uncontrollability, and uncertainty often are interpreted as exclusively aversive experiences that people seek to avoid or regulate (e.g., Park, 2010; Van den Bos, 2009). It has been noted previously, however, that emotional intensity can counter the detrimental effects of negative emotions on overall well-being (e.g., Fujita et al., 1991). As a thought experiment, imagine a study comparing people who have just seen a horror movie (e.g., ‘the Exorcist’) with a neutral control group. We would be quite comfortable to pre-register the prediction that participants who have watched the horror movie provide higher ratings than the control group on variables such as anxiety, uncontrollability, and uncertainty. This does not mean that watching the movie was an aversive experience, however. On the contrary, people deliberately choose to expose themselves to such frightening experiences because they are entertaining. Many experiences in daily life yield emotions that are not only positive or negative but also intense, which have unique implications for human cognition and behaviour (see also Van Boven et al., 2010).

Of importance, the current propositions do not hold normative implications regarding the value of believing in conspiracy theories: Observing that people find conspiracy theories entertaining does not imply a recommendation to endorse them (as an analogy, some people find using drugs or excessive gambling entertaining, yet we do not recommend those activities either). It is well-known that conspiracy theories stimulate harmful behaviours, such as vaccine refusals or decreased efforts to reduce one’s carbon footprints (e.g., Jolley & Douglas, 2014a; Van der Linden, 2015). Rather, the present research was designed to shed light on the scientific question what makes conspiracy theories appealing to people, despite their harmful effects.

Strengths, limitations, and future research

The results across five studies supported a similar conclusion even though we investigated different conspiracy theories in different settings. This is in line with the notion that although conspiracy theories may differ widely in content, belief in such theories is rooted in similar and predictable underlying psychological processes (Douglas et al., 2017; Van Prooijen, 2020; Van Prooijen & Van Vugt, 2018). Furthermore, the studies combined experiments to reveal the effects of conspiracy exposure and entertainment value (Studies 1–3) with cross-sectional studies to investigate the implications of these findings for a role of sensation-seeking in conspiracy theories (Studies 4 and 5). Finally, all the studies reported here were well-powered, and one of the studies was preregistered, suggesting that the current findings are robust and likely to replicate in follow-up studies.

One limitation of the present studies is that in Studies 1–3, emotional valence and emotional intensity were assessed with general measures of only one item. It is possible that more sophisticated measures of specific, discrete emotions with negative valence (e.g., anger, anxiety) shape conspiracy thinking independent of intensity. Also, the scope of the present findings is yet unclear. For instance, the causal evidence for the link between entertainment appraisals and conspiracy beliefs depends on Study 3, but the emotional content of the entertainment condition may have had additional effects unaccounted for (e.g., in acrimonious social settings, actual corruption may be more likely). Furthermore, it is possible that these findings are moderated by stable individual difference variables. Moreover, entertainment is not the only factor predicting conspiracy belief, and quite often genuine distress (e.g., following social crisis situations such as a pandemic or terrorist attack) stimulates conspiracy thinking (Van Prooijen & Douglas, 2017).

Finally, some conspiracy theories may be very entertaining yet not particularly credible (e.g., flat earth conspiracy theories). One might speculate that for the present effects to occur, entertainment appraisals need to include a serious fascination, rooted in the assumption that a conspiracy theory might be true. If one experiences a less serious form of entertainment (e.g., excessive humour after reading a ridiculous conspiracy theory), the effects observed in the present studies are unlikely to occur. At the same time, we should note that anecdotes exist of clearly fictional stories turning into far-fetched conspiracy theories that some people genuinely believe. For instance, the ‘alien lizard’ conspiracy theory (assuming that powerful politicians are a breed of alien lizards disguised as humans) shows strong parallels with the plotline of a science fiction series from the 1980s called ‘V’. Likewise, the novel ‘the Da Vinci Code’ has inspired people to believe the conspiracy theory described in the book (Newheiser et al., 2011). Future research may provide a more fine-grained analysis of the relationships between intense emotional experiences, entertainment appraisals, and conspiracy beliefs.

Compared to heterosexual couples, gay coupless, men and women, tend to have or be willing to accept larger age differences

Age-dissimilar couple relationships: 25 years in review. Lara McKenzie. Journal of Family Theory & Review, July 14 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12427

Abstract: This review explores research over the past quarter century on couples with age differences. I present recent global trends in age-dissimilar couplings, illustrating a shift away from statistical marriage studies focusing on relationships' motivations, inequalities, and challenges, and largely underpinned by biological, economic, or demographic outlooks. Since the last review of age-dissimilar couples in 1993, there have been substantive qualitative developments. Scholarship looking beyond Euro-American contexts is increasingly common, as are approaches examining class, race, sexuality, culture, religion, and nationality, as well as age, marital status, education, and employment. This transformation informs new perspectives on power and partner choice. I argue that research now needs more fluid definitions of age differences, greater range in qualitative studies' geographies and methodologies, and continued consideration of the life course and intersecting differences. Examinations of age-dissimilar couples should thus focus on these relationships' varied configurations, explored through a range of social analyses.