Exposure to Extremely Partisan News from the Other Political Side Shows Scarce Boomerang Effects

Exposure to Extremely Partisan News from the Other Political Side Shows Scarce Boomerang Effects. Andreu Casas, Ericka Menchen-Trevino & Magdalena Wojcieszak. Political Behavior, Feb 3 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-021-09769-9

Abstract: A narrow information diet may be partly to blame for the growing political divides in the United States, suggesting exposure to dissimilar views as a remedy. These efforts, however, could be counterproductive, exacerbating attitude and affective polarization. Yet findings on whether such boomerang effect exists are mixed and the consequences of dissimilar exposure on other important outcomes remain unexplored. To contribute to this debate, we rely on a preregistered longitudinal experimental design combining participants’ survey self-reports and their behavioral browsing data, in which one should observe boomerang effects. We incentivized liberals to read political articles on extreme conservative outlets (Breitbart, The American Spectator, and The Blaze) and conservatives to read extreme left-leaning sites (Mother Jones, Democracy Now, and The Nation). We maximize ecological validity by embedding the treatment in a larger project that tracks over time changes in online exposure and attitudes. We explored the effects on attitude and affective polarization, as well as on perceptions of the political system, support for democratic principles, and personal well-being. Overall we find little evidence of boomerang effects.

Discussion

In the US, political understanding is needed more than ever. To achieve this elusive goal, scholars and practitioners encourage exposure to dissimilar political views, with the hope that encountering views that challenge one’s beliefs will minimize extremity and interparty hostility. Although some scholars caution against this approach, suggesting that cross-cutting exposure can increase polarization, the evidence of such boomerang effects is mixed and quite limited in scope.

We set out to contribute solving this debate with an innovative experimental design combining incentivized over time exposure to extreme news domains from across the aisle (Breitbart, The American Spectator, and The Blaze for liberals; and Mother Jones, Democracy Now, and The Nation for conservatives), pre-, post-, and intermediate surveys, trace data on actual online exposure, and participants’s open-ended reactions to the outlets tested. Although this design is counterfactual (after all, most liberals are unlikely to regularly visit Breitbart), it was well suited to detecting boomerang effects if these are in fact a likely outcome of cross-cutting exposure. The design also allowed us to test whether the studied exposure impacts broader societal outcomes and individual well-being, and also for whom these effects emerge.

In short, despite the over-time nature of the treatment (i.e., 12 days), accounting for intended treatment effects as well as the levels of compliance, and testing attitude polarization on a range of salient issues and affective polarization with several indicators and toward various out-groups, we show that cross-cutting exposure is unlikely to intensify political conflict or have any substantive effects on the societal and individual outcomes tested. People did not radicalize their issue attitudes nor their feelings towards the out-party and the supporters of the opposing ideology. Although we did find that people became slightly more negative toward those holding opposing views on a few policies (e.g., climate change and immigration), these effects were minor (< 0.2 standard deviation changes) and did not hold when accounting for multiple comparisons and false discovery rate. Furthermore, although observers fear that strong partisans are most likely to radicalize and drive political conflict, we do not find pronounced heterogeneous effects.

Similarly, our treatment did little to influence participants’ perceptions of the political system, in terms of their support for compromise, attributing malevolent intentions to the outparty, or seeing the polity as polarized. It also did not shift their support for key democratic principles, such as freedom of speech or freedom of the press. Relatedly, extreme cross-cutting exposure did not worsen participants’ well-being.

The findings are a great contribution to the existing literature on the potential negative effects of exposure to counter-attitudinal information. Contrary to some evidence, which finds exposure to opposing views to exacerbate polarization (Levendusky, 2013; Bail et al., 2018; Garrett et al., 2014), and in line with other recent work (Guess & Coppock, 2018; Guess et al., 2021; Levy, 2021), we conclude that boomerang effect are the exception rather than the norm. Extending past work by incorporating people’s evaluations of the outlets and articles (based on short surveys and also open-ended thoughts and emotions), this consistent lack of boomerang effects may be due to people’s largely neutral or even positive reactions to the outlets and their content. We wanted to test the effect of a counterfactual and selected these 6 sites because they are considered far left and far right in most classifications of news media ideology (Robertson et al., 2018; Eady et al., 2019). Nevertheless, despite representing the extreme of each ideological side,Footnote18 and despite being vilified by one’s partisan group, our participants sometimes valued the information they consumed therein. In addition, this study also makes a relevant contribution to the growing body of work that uses trace data to study people’s attitudes and behavior (Stier et al., 2020; Guess, 2021; Guess et al., 2021; Wojcieszak et al., 2021b). Rather than relying on a forced exposure experiment that shows people mock sites with counter-attitudinal articles, we incentivized exposure, accounted for compliance, and exposed them to real articles that actually appeared in news outlets of the opposing ideology. At a time where key stakeholders such as social media companies (Farr and dorsey, 2018; Wood & Ethan, 2020), news organizations (Goodman & Chen, 2010), and governments (Rendall, 2015; Commission, 2013) are designing policies to reduce polarization, we believe that the findings reported here can help inform the decision-making process moving forward.

Measuring Gratification From and Consequences of Likes: Gratification from receiving likes was positively associated with risky behaviors used to enhance fame, tendency to use social media’s black market, and problematic Internet use

Measuring Gratification From and Consequences of Likes: The Potential for Maladaptive Social Media Behavior. Reza Shabahang, Zahra Ghaemi, Mara S. Aruguete, Maryam Saeedi, Hyejin Shim, and Seyedeh Farnaz Sedighian. Journal of Media Psychology, Feb 2 2022. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000328

Abstract: Abstract. Paralinguistic digital affordances (PDAs; e.g., likes) are sought out by social media users and serve an important function of enhancing social reputation in online contexts. Nonetheless, there has been no standardized measure for evaluating gratification from receiving PDAs. This study provides a brief, validated self-report questionnaire on PDA gratification. The results of factor analysis verified the three-factor structure (i.e., emotional, status, and social gratifications) of the questionnaire. Internal consistency was established using inter-item correlation, corrected item-total correlation, and Cronbach’s alpha. Gratification from receiving PDAs was positively associated with risky behaviors used to enhance fame, tendency to use social media’s black market, and problematic Internet use. The findings provide preliminary evidence that gratification from receiving PDAs may increase the likelihood of maladaptive fame-seeking behaviors in social media users. The Gratification From Receiving PDAs Questionnaire appears to be a promising measure that may offer new insights into the motivations involved in social media use.

In Sweden, men with limited resources are considered less attractive; male financial resources are not seen as a bonus, but rather a prerequisite; sexual exchange theory is then a useful theory

Ngaosuvan, Leonard and Holmberg, Linus Carl and Saleh Al-Basri, Naila and Elshani, Rebecca, Sexual Economics in Swedish Dating: Pity Poor Men. SSRN, Jan 29 2022: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4020856

Abstract: Sexual exchange theory (SET) is a controversial theory describing heterosexual partner selection in terms of economic market factors. This paper explores SET empirically in Sweden, one of the most financially equal nations in the world. Experiment 1, a vignette study with four dating profiles, tested whether access to resources increases male attractiveness. Experiment 2, a vignette study measured how justifiable men’s disappointment was, depending on financial courtship investments in a failed courtship attempt. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that, even in Sweden, men with limited resources are considered less attractive. Male financial resources are not seen as a bonus, but rather a prerequisite. In Experiment 2, participants felt that it was not justifiable to be disappointed for men who were ‘cheap’ in courtship. These results indicate that SET is a useful theory, even in a relatively gender-equal society.

Keywords: Sexual Economics, Gender equality, Partner Selection, Attraction, Courtship, Sexual Exchange Theory.

Psychedelics: Medical risks are often minimal, and that many – albeit not all – of the persistent negative perceptions of psychological risks are unsupported by the currently available scientific evidence

Adverse effects of psychedelics: From anecdotes and misinformation to systematic science. Anne K Schlag et al. Journal of Psychopharmacology, February 2, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811211069100

Abstract

Background: Despite an increasing body of research highlighting their efficacy to treat a broad range of medical conditions, psychedelic drugs remain a controversial issue among the public and politicians, tainted by previous stigmatisation and perceptions of risk and danger.

Objective: This narrative review examines the evidence for potential harms of the classic psychedelics by separating anecdotes and misinformation from systematic research.

Methods: Taking a high-level perspective, we address both psychological and psychiatric risks, such as abuse liability and potential for dependence, as well as medical harms, including toxicity and overdose. We explore the evidence base for these adverse effects to elucidate which of these harms are based largely on anecdotes versus those that stand up to current scientific scrutiny.

Results: Our review shows that medical risks are often minimal, and that many – albeit not all – of the persistent negative perceptions of psychological risks are unsupported by the currently available scientific evidence, with the majority of reported adverse effects not being observed in a regulated and/or medical context.

Conclusions: This highlights the importance for clinicians and therapists to keep to the highest safety and ethical standards. It is imperative not to be overzealous and to ensure balanced media reporting to avoid future controversies, so that much needed research can continue.

Keywords: Psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine, ayahuasca, mescaline, d-lysergic acid diethylamide, abuse liability/dependence, hallucinogen persistent perception disorder, toxicity, hypertension

Conclusion

Some of the perceived harms of psychedelics – for example, that they lead to addiction and are neurotoxic – are largely refuted by research of the past decades. Other risks, such as the risks of psychotic episodes or overdose, are rare and only reported in individual cases, but these risks still need to be minimised by careful patient selection and preparation. The past decade of research and clinical experience has increasingly demonstrated how psychedelics can be used safely under medical supervision, and safe use guidelines are progressively well defined (e.g. Griffiths et al., 2006).

Regulatory and legal hurdles of getting psychedelic medicines proven as mainstream medicines are still substantial, so overcoming historic misperceptions is vital. The past decade has seen an increasing focus on research on the therapeutic applications of psychedelics – a direct benefit for the public, which is positively represented in current media (Aday et al., 2019). A recent YouGov study (2017) indicates that public perceptions in the United States becoming more positive, with the majority (63%) being open to medical treatment with psychedelics if faced with a pertinent medical condition, and a UK YouGov survey (2021) corroborates these results.

These changes in public interest are in line with the recent regulatory changes in the United States and Canada. Collectively, these changes in public perception and regulation suggest that the stigma surrounding psychedelics may be beginning to dissipate, and that society is moving away from previous negative narratives to a more scientific, evidence-based approach to risks and benefits of psychedelics as medicine.

Political Resources and Online Political Hostility: How and Why Hostility Is More Prevalent Among the Resourceful

Rasmussen, Stig H. R., Mathias Osmundsen, and Michael Bang Petersen. 2022. “Political Resources and Online Political Hostility: How and Why Hostility Is More Prevalent Among the Resourceful.” PsyArXiv. February 2. psyarxiv.com/tp93r

Abstract: Toxicity and hostility permeate political debates on social media, but who is responsible? Canonical theories of political engagement equate political resources with being a “model democratic citizen.” In contrast, we develop the theoretical argument that in the current polarized political climate, those same resources come to motivate hostile engagement. Combining two years of survey and behavioral Twitter data, we provide empirical support for a link between political resources and online political hostility. This link is especially pronounced among citizens high in affective polarization -- a trait held by many resourceful citizens in current US society. Concerningly, resourceful but hateful social media users do not simply cater to fringe audiences. Rather, they dominate online debates by tweeting more frequently, having more friends and followers, and by occupying powerful positions in their online networks. The present findings thus shed important light on the causes and consequences of online political hostility.

Human adult neurogenesis seems unlikely: Found signatures of adult neurogenesis in mouse, pig, and macaque dentate gyrus, but not in humans, adding to a growing body of evidence that this process is likely lost in humans

Transcriptomic taxonomy and neurogenic trajectories of adult human, macaque, and pig hippocampal and entorhinal cell. Daniel Franjic et al. Neuron, Volume 110, Issue 3, February 2 2022, Pages 452-469.e14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2021.10.036

Highlights

• Single-nucleus RNA-seq of adult hippocampal-entorhinal cells in human, monkey, and pig

• Transcriptomic signatures of adult neurogenesis in mouse, pig, and monkey but not human

• Excitatory neuron diversification delineates transitions from 3- to 6-layered cortex

• METTL7B defines subregion-specific excitatory neurons and astrocytes in primates

Summary: The hippocampal-entorhinal system supports cognitive functions, has lifelong neurogenic capabilities in many species, and is selectively vulnerable to Alzheimer’s disease. To investigate neurogenic potential and cellular diversity, we profiled single-nucleus transcriptomes in five hippocampal-entorhinal subregions in humans, macaques, and pigs. Integrated cross-species analysis revealed robust transcriptomic and histologic signatures of neurogenesis in the adult mouse, pig, and macaque but not humans. Doublecortin (DCX), a widely accepted marker of newly generated granule cells, was detected in diverse human neurons, but it did not define immature neuron populations. To explore species differences in cellular diversity and implications for disease, we characterized subregion-specific, transcriptomically defined cell types and transitional changes from the three-layered archicortex to the six-layered neocortex. Notably, METTL7B defined subregion-specific excitatory neurons and astrocytes in primates, associated with endoplasmic reticulum and lipid droplet proteins, including Alzheimer’s disease-related proteins. This resource reveals cell-type- and species-specific properties shaping hippocampal-entorhinal neurogenesis and function.

Discussion

We report an extensive single-cell transcriptomics analysis of several anatomically defined cell populations in the adult human, macaque, and pig hippocampal-entorhinal system. Our findings reveal fundamental species differences in adult hippocampal neurogenesis and delineate the molecular diversity of the cytoarchitectural transition from the allo- to the neocortex. These results also outline genes that are selectively enriched in certain species and cell types that may have a role in the specific biology and/or pathology of the hippocampal-entorhinal system

Unlike recent studies that mostly rely on one or two key markers (e.g., progenitors [nestin]; neuroblasts and immature granule cells [DCX]) (Boldrini et al., 2018; Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2019; Tobin et al., 2019), single-cell RNA-seq studies are more comprehensive because they leverage combinatorial gene expression profiles to identify cell populations more robustly (Hochgerner et al., 2018). This approach also allows cross-species analysis, amplifying rare signals within a single species that may be masked when analyzed separately. Our cross-species analysis allowed identification of the neurogenic lineage in the mouse, pig, and macaque, which was virtually absent in the human. We only detected one cell with the transcriptomics profile characteristic of nIPCs and one with putative neuroblast profile among 32,067 granule cells (0.003%) in our adult human DG samples, a proportion considerably lower than the expected 0.09%–3.8% neuroblasts according to previous DCX immunostaining or 14C incorporation studies of the adult human HIP (see Table S2 for data and relevant studies).

The same analytic strategy detected much higher proportions of neuroblasts in the other analyzed species (mouse, 6.6%; pig, 55.6%; macaque, 2.0%; Figure 2B; Table S3). These proportions were higher than those estimated previously based on progenitor proliferation and identification of neuroblasts markers such as DCX (Table S2), suggesting that more studies are needed to fine-tune detection of these neurogenic populations. However, this apparently lax detection protocol confirms that our parameters are unlikely to have missed any appreciable neuroblast populations among the large pool of surveyed human DG granule cells, even if they might exhibit an ambiguous profile.

Alternative confounding of our cross-species integrative analysis from possible human-specific transcriptomics changes was ruled out when human UMAP layouts did not include any clustering of neurogenic cells adjacent to the mature granule cell cluster. Likewise, the possibility that human neuroblasts exist in our samples but that their transcriptomics profile differs from other species and blends with related cell populations is lessened by findings that all neurogenic lineages preceding mature granule cells were absent in human DG samples (Tables S2 and S3).

We also extended our findings to existing snRNA-seq data of the adult human HIP. We reappraised the identity of a recently reported neural progenitor cluster (Ayhan et al., 2021) marked by LPAR1, a gene reported to mark mouse DG neural progenitors (Walker et al., 2016; Hochgerner et al., 2018). Our analyses indicated that this cluster actually represented doublets formed by oligodendrocytes and granule cells (Figure S3S). In addition, reanalysis of the pioneer HIP data (Habib et al., 2017) by Sorrells et al. (2021) showed that the cell cluster labeled as neural stem cells was actually characteristic of ependymal cells.

Analysis of DCX transcripts in all the analyzed species showed expression in mature neurons, mostly InNs, and in glial cells, indicating that DCX expression is not exclusive to DG neuroblasts (Figures 3A and 3B). This pattern is in agreement with the reanalysis of the data from Habib et al. (2017) (Sorrells et al., 2021). All transcriptomics analyses performed so far suggest a lack of neurogenic cell populations in the adult human DG.

At the protein level, DCX was, with a few exceptions (Figure S3L), present exclusively in DG cells resembling neuroblasts and immature granule cells in all analyzed non-human species. Also, cells with immature morphology could be detected in other areas, such as the EC of the macaque or the pyriform cortex of the mouse, as described previously (Gómez-Climent et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2009). In humans, there is intense controversy regarding DCX immunostaining in the human DG, with some reports showing negative results (Dennis et al., 2016; Cipriani et al., 2018; Sorrells et al., 2018, 2021) and others describing DCX-IL cells (Knoth et al., 2010; Epp et al., 2013; Boldrini et al., 2018; Le Maître et al., 2018; Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2019, 2021; Tobin et al., 2019). We detected clear DCX-IL cells in the amygdala and occasionally in the EC, but we could not find DCX-IL cells resembling neuroblasts in the DG in the same tissue sections. These inconsistencies in detecting DCX-IL cells in the adult human DG cannot be fully attributed to postmortem denaturation and degradation of DCX protein because DCX-IL cells were clearly detected in samples with prolonged PMIs (Figures S3D, S3E, and S3I–S3L). Moreno-Jiménez et al. (2019) reported an intensive protocol for antigen retrieval as a necessary step to label DCX cells in the human DG. However, they reported no positive cells in the EC, a relatively common finding in our study (Figure S3D) and another (Sorrells et al., 2021) using conventional antigen retrieval. Because our analysis did not reveal neuroblasts at the RNA or protein level (using diverse antigen retrieval methods), the question remains what those previously reported cells could be. Apart from underappreciated non-specific and off-target effects (Sorrells et al., 2021), those studies could label mature granule cells and InNs that might contain low levels of DCX protein that was detected specially after multi-step antigen retrieval. In support of this hypothesis is the fact that the faintly immunolabeled cells we detected mostly in the vicinity of the granule cell layer, exhibited the morphology of mature InNs, and some co-labeled with antibodies against GAD1, a marker of InNs (Figures 3E and S3M–S3Q). This faint staining is far from the strong staining and well-defined morphology of somata and dendrites revealed in the EC and in the amygdala (Figures S3D and S3E) and is similar to the light DCX immunostaining reported previously (Seki et al., 2019). Thus, our conclusion is that DCX protein might be expressed at very low levels in InNs or in some mature granule cells that can be lightly immunolabeled under normal antigen retrieval but can show more intense and widespread staining under more elaborate tissue treatment and stringent conditions of antigen retrieval. In fact, Figure 2I from Moreno-Jiménez et al. (2019) shows that around 75% of DCX-IL cells were colocalized with NeuN (RBFOX3, 75%), a marker of mature granule cells, and 91% of DCX-IL cells were also positive for Prospero homeobox1 (PROX1), a transcription factor expressed by granule cells that is also expressed by InNs generated in the caudal ganglionic eminence (Ma et al., 2013; Laclef and Métin, 2018), supporting the possibility that most DCX-IL cells might actually be mature granule cells or InNs.

Regarding RNA analysis, although the PMI for humans was longer than for other analyzed species, human brains were kept at 4°C for most of the PMI period, whereas the pigs used as controls for PMI were kept at room temperature. This warm PMI will likely exacerbate the postmortem effects, but those conditions were not an obstacle to detect the neurogenic pathway in this species. It could be argued that the neurogenic pathway in the human DG is not detected because our snRNA-seq strategy might preferentially exclude neurogenic cells in humans. However, it seems extremely unlikely that it will affect all cell types in the neurogenic lineage, from progenitors to neuroblasts, and only in human. Overall, the most parsimonious interpretation of the combined results from our RNA transcript analysis and the DCX protein study is that, contrary to the other analyzed mammals, ongoing baseline neurogenesis does not occur or is extremely rare in the adult human DG.

Similar species-related and cell-specific transcriptomics profiling that characterizes neurogenic potential also outlines the transition from allocortical to neocortical domains in the hippocampal-entorhinal system and shows that ExNs are the main drivers of the differences between subfields (Figure 4), which evidences a richer complement of ExNs than traditional descriptions based on cytoarchitecture. Our analysis provides a primer to further study these populations and characterize the possible implications for hippocampal-entorhinal physiology. These data refine our understanding of the evolution of the allo-, meso-, and neocortex. The transcriptomics signatures we developed strongly suggest homology between the mammalian allocortex and specifically deep layers of the EC and neocortex.

Among the genes contributing to the layer transition, we identified METTL7B to be important in hippocampus physiology and function. We found that METTL7B, equipped with methyltransferase activity, interacts with important AD-related proteins (e.g., APP, LRP1, RTN3, and RTN4). Importantly, our results suggest that these functional interactions in a subset of ExNs and astrocytes seem to be phylogenetically specific to Old World monkeys and apes (parvorder Catarrhini), species that show more marked signs of pathology related to aging, such as AD, than other species (Perez et al., 2013; Finch and Austad, 2015; Edler et al., 2017; Paspalas et al., 2018). Overall, our analyses provide multiple vignettes of how this resource can be used to identify cell types and genes that might be functionally relevant for the biology of the hippocampus, allowing inter-species comparisons.

Nudges: Our megastudy with 689,693 Walmart pharmacy customers demonstrates that text-based reminders can encourage pharmacy vaccination

A 680,000-person megastudy of nudges to encourage vaccination in pharmacies. Katherine L. Milkman et al. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, February 8, 2022 119 (6) e2115126119; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115126119

Significance: Encouraging vaccination is a pressing policy problem. Our megastudy with 689,693 Walmart pharmacy customers demonstrates that text-based reminders can encourage pharmacy vaccination and establishes what kinds of messages work best. We tested 22 different text reminders using a variety of different behavioral science principles to nudge flu vaccination. Reminder texts increased vaccination rates by an average of 2.0 percentage points (6.8%) over a business-as-usual control condition. The most-effective messages reminded patients that a flu shot was waiting for them and delivered reminders on multiple days. The top-performing intervention included two texts 3 d apart and stated that a vaccine was “waiting for you.” Forecasters failed to anticipate that this would be the best-performing treatment, underscoring the value of testing.

Abstract: Encouraging vaccination is a pressing policy problem. To assess whether text-based reminders can encourage pharmacy vaccination and what kinds of messages work best, we conducted a megastudy. We randomly assigned 689,693 Walmart pharmacy patients to receive one of 22 different text reminders using a variety of different behavioral science principles to nudge flu vaccination or to a business-as-usual control condition that received no messages. We found that the reminder texts that we tested increased pharmacy vaccination rates by an average of 2.0 percentage points, or 6.8%, over a 3-mo follow-up period. The most-effective messages reminded patients that a flu shot was waiting for them and delivered reminders on multiple days. The top-performing intervention included two texts delivered 3 d apart and communicated to patients that a vaccine was “waiting for you.” Neither experts nor lay people anticipated that this would be the best-performing treatment, underscoring the value of simultaneously testing many different nudges in a highly powered megastudy.

Keywords: vaccinationCOVID-19nudgeinfluenzafield experiment

Discussion

The results of this megastudy suggest that pharmacies can increase flu vaccination rates by sending behaviorally informed, text-based reminders to their patients. Further, although all interventions tested increased vaccination rates, there was significant variability in their effectiveness. Attribute analyses suggest that the most-impactful interventions employed messages sent on multiple days and conveyed that a flu vaccine was already waiting for the patient. These insights from our megastudy of flu vaccinations can potentially inform efforts by pharmacies and hopefully also providers and governments around the world in the ongoing campaign to encourage full vaccination against COVID-19.

The first- and second-best-performing messages in our megastudy repeatedly reminded patients to get a vaccine and stated that a flu shot was “waiting for you.”§ This aligns with prior research suggesting multiple reminders can help encourage healthy decisions (13). In terms of message content, communicating that a vaccine is “waiting for you” may increase the perceived value of vaccines, in accord with research on the endowment effect showing that we value things more if we feel they already belong to us (33). Further, because defaults convey implicit recommendations, this message may imply that the pharmacy is recommending vaccination (34)—otherwise, why would they have allocated a dose to you? Relatedly, this phrasing implies that the patient already agrees that getting the vaccine is desirable. Finally, saying a vaccine is “waiting for you” may suggest that getting a vaccine will be fast and easy.

Remarkably, the three top-performing text messages in a different megastudy, which included different intervention messages encouraging patients to get vaccines at an upcoming doctor’s visit, similarly conveyed to patients that a vaccine was “reserved for you.” (8) The Walmart megastudy tested a wide range of different messaging tactics designed by different researchers to explore largely different hypotheses such that the two megastudies had very limited overlap in their content. Further, our outcome variable here was electing to get a vaccine in a Walmart pharmacy, whereas the prior megastudy examined whether patients accepted a proffered vaccine in a doctor’s office. Despite differences in the messenger (pharmacy versus primary care provider), the outcome (seeking a vaccine at a pharmacy versus passively accepting one in a doctor’s office), and the messages actually tested, and despite analyzing our data without incorporating any priors, the results of the two megastudies converged, painting a consistent picture of what works. Together, this evidence suggests that sending reminder messages conveying that vaccines are “reserved” or “waiting” for patients is an especially effective communications strategy in the two most-common vaccination settings in the United States (16). While more research is needed to establish boundary conditions, it is notable that a follow-up study that built on the findings from these two megastudies and adapted the best-performing treatment to nudge COVID-19 vaccinations in the winter of 2021 found convergent results (9).

The scientists who designed interventions in our megastudy were not able to accurately forecast the average or relative performance of text message interventions designed to boost vaccinations. In contrast, lay survey respondents made fairly accurate predictions of both. This contradicts past research showing that experts are generally better at predicting the effectiveness of behavioral interventions than nonexperts (35). One possible explanation is that direct involvement in the design of interventions led to bias. Another possibility is that nonexperts are generally more-accurate relative forecasters in this particular field setting. Regardless, the inability of either scientists or laypeople to anticipate the top-performing intervention underscores the value of empirical testing when seeking the best policy.

The strengths of this megastudy include its massive, national sample, statistical power, an objective measure of vaccination obtained longitudinally over a 3-mo follow-up period, and simultaneous comparison of many different interventions. Several important weaknesses are also worth noting. First, we were only able to measure the impact of our interventions on vaccinations received at Walmart pharmacies. We cannot assess whether interventions increased vaccinations in other locations or, in fact, crowded out vaccinations in other settings. Past research found no meaningful evidence of crowd-in or crowd-out from reminder messages nudging vaccine adoption (4), but we cannot rule out either possibility. Another limitation is that the population studied only included patients who had received an influenza vaccine at a Walmart pharmacy in the prior flu season and agreed to receive SMS communications from Walmart pharmacy. Even so, our key findings are consistent with a different megastudy nudging vaccination at doctors’ visits (8), in which results were not moderated by prior vaccination status. It would be ideal to replicate and extend this megastudy with patients who have no prior history of vaccination. Relatedly, while we did not observe meaningful heterogeneity in treatment effects by available demographics, future research exploring heterogeneous treatment effects with a richer set of individual difference variables would be valuable.

Men are less religious in more gender-equal countries

Men are less religious in more gender-equal countries. Jordan W. Moon, Adam E. Tratner and Melissa M. McDonald. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, February 2 2022. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2474

Abstract: Sex differences in religiosity are cross-culturally common and robust, yet it is unclear why sex differences in some cultures are larger than in others. Although women are more religious than men in most countries, religions frequently provide asymmetrical benefits to men at the expense of women. Two global analyses (51 countries and 74 countries) found that country-level gender equality was consistently and negatively associated with religiousness (i.e. religious attendance, reported importance of God and frequency of prayer) for men, more than for women, leading to a larger sex difference in religiousness in more gender-equal countries. Results were especially robust for religious attendance, and hold accounting for country-level wealth, as well as individuals' religious affiliation, the moralization of sexuality, age and education level. We interpret results through a rational choice lens, which assumes that people are more drawn to religion when it is consistent with their reproductive goals.

4. Discussion

These data show that gender equality across cultures consistently and negatively predicts religious belief and behaviour among men, but the effect is small and inconsistent for women. This interaction between gender equality and participant sex holds in most of the models we ran, even when accounting for the clustering of countries within sub-regions, the religious denominations of participants, sociosexuality, age, education and country-level wealth.

The results were particularly strong with religious attendance as an outcome; in all such models there was a consistent negative relationship between gender equality and religious attendance for men, but no effect for women. We suggest that religious attendance (versus private religious behaviour or belief) is the outcome most relevant to our hypothesis. That is, it is attendance and overt participation that we would expect to be associated with the reproductive outcomes of interest. Overt religious participation may allow men to more easily monitor women, police sexual behaviour or to signal their value as a mate via religious commitment.

In addition, the focal results were driven by gender equality in education and economic participation, but not political power or health/survival. These results could be consistent with the view of religion as a ‘costly signal’ to indicate qualities such as trustworthiness, dedication to one's family or even simply dedication to one's group [7,37–39,62–64]; gender equality might also influence the payoffs of using religion as a costly signal. For instance, there is some evidence that women's economic dependence on men—which makes paternal certainty more critical—facilitates moralization of promiscuity [65]. It follows, then, that women who are dependent on men (i.e. when gender equality is low) may prioritize signals of paternal investment and long-term commitment; this could, in turn, incentivise men in these societies to use religion as a signal of their willingness to invest in their offspring [7,39].

One could also predict the same pattern by considering other functions of religion. For example, religion fosters cooperation and ingroup cohesion [66,67] and can help people manage their existential insecurities [41]. Indeed, religions are especially attractive to people after facing mortal threats, such as intergroup conflict [68]. One alternative explanation, then, could be that countries that have achieved greater gender equality face fewer threats that require male coalitional coordination (e.g. warfare); therefore, people (particularly men) in these countries are less likely to view religion as necessary. We reiterate, however, that our analyses are unable to reveal the mechanism behind the observed effects, or to adjudicate between alternative explanations.

Our hypothesis stems from a rational choice perspective on religion [9], suggesting that engagement in religious behaviours and beliefs might stem partly from the reproductive benefits people acquire from them [9,16,18]. Because religions often involve costly behaviour [69,70], one should expect religious engagement to be more likely when the benefits outweigh the costs. If indeed one of the functions of religion is reproductive support that often favours men over women, and if the manipulation of women in such ways (e.g. through modesty norms or proscribing sexual promiscuity) is less accepted in more gender-equal societies, the costs may outweigh the benefits for men in these societies, resulting in lower religiousness among men.

Feminist-identified men were substantially more likely to report Erectile Dysfunction Medication use than non-feminist men; could be that feminist men are more honest about this usage, or that non-feminist ones see using it as a threat to masculinity

Silva, Tony, and Tina Fetner. 2022. “Men’s Feminist Identification and Reported Use of Prescription Erectile Dysfunction Medication.” SocArXiv. February 1. doi:10.1080/00224499.2022.2029810

Abstract: We analyzed data from the 2018 Sex in Canada survey (n = 1,015 cisgender men) to examine the association between feminist identification and reported use of prescription ED medication (EDM) during men’s last sexual encounter. Feminist-identified men were substantially more likely to report EDM use than non-feminist men, even after controlling for alcohol use before sex, erection difficulties, sexual arousal, sexual health, mental health, and physical health. One explanation is that feminist men may use EDM to bolster their masculinity when it is otherwise threatened by their identification as feminist. Another is that non-feminist men may be less likely to use prescription EDM because they view accessing healthcare services as a threat to their masculinity. It is also possible that feminist men are more likely to use EDM because they wish to maintain an erection to better please their partner. Lastly, feminist men may be more honest about EDM use than non-feminist men, even though rates are similar. Regardless of the exact reason, therapists can use these results to tailor sexual health messages to clients based on feminist identification. Future work could employ qualitative methods to understand why feminist men report higher rates of EDM use than non-feminist men.

The size and homophily of friendship networks are to a substantial degree based on genetic influence; no evidence found that shared hobbies, education, or Big Five personality traits affect networks

Heritability in friendship networks. Michael Neugart, Selen Yildirim. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Volume 194, February 2022, Pages 41-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2021.12.008

Highlights

• Heritability of overall friendship network characteristics is explored.

• Data from German TwinLife Study is analyzed within classical twin design.

• Genetic component found in twins’ network size and network homophily.

• Role of twins’ shared hobbies, education, and personality traits is analyzed.

Abstract: There is considerable evidence nowadays that friendship networks account for a large part of an individual’s success or failure in life. Little, however, is known about the extent to which friendship networks are associated with an individual’s genotype. Using data from the German TwinLife study, we explore, within a classical twin design, whether friendship networks are related to genes. We find a substantial heritability component in twins’ network sizes and network homophily, but not in twins’ network closeness. The genetic influence on network characteristics may be attributable to traits which are themselves influenced by genetic factors. Addressing indirect ways in which genes could influence network characteristics, we do not find evidence that shared hobbies, education, or Big Five personality traits affect networks.

Keywords: Social networksTwinsBehavioral geneticsHobbiesBig fiveEducation

Heterosexual women's exposure to a same-sex peer who constituted a sexual rival (straight/bisexual) led to more spreading of reputation-damaging information vs. reputation-enhancing info, compared with exposure to a noncompetitor (lesbian target)

Bakolas, N. K. M., & Park, J. H. (2022). Female intrasexual competition is affected by the sexual orientation of the target and the ovulatory cycle. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, Feb 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000287

Abstract: Research suggests that women use indirect aggression strategies to compete with same-sex peers and improve their mating prospects. One such tactic involves strategically transmitting reputation-damaging information as opposed to reputation-enhancing information, to lessen the appeal of sexual rivals. The present study further examined whether this strategic information transmission constitutes an intrasexual competition strategy, by comparing denigration of same-sex peers who constitute sexual competitors or noncompetitors as determined by their sexual orientation. This study also explored the impact of the ovulatory cycle on this strategy, following research suggesting that hormone fluctuation drives subtle behavioral changes near ovulation, amplifying other forms of intrasexual competition between women. Results indicated that among women identifying as straight, exposure to a same-sex peer who constituted a sexual rival (straight/bisexual target) led to greater transmission of reputation-damaging information relative to reputation-enhancing information, compared with exposure to a noncompetitor (lesbian target). The ovulatory cycle was found to be associated with denigration, but this did not depend on the sexuality of the target. Participants in the estimated high-estrogen phase showed greater denigration overall than participants in the low-estrogen phase, regardless of the target’s sexuality.

Women's pick-up lines are perceived as most effective when they are direct and unmistakable, particularly by men

Wade, T. J., Fisher, M. L., & Gaines, L. (2022). The perceived effectiveness of women’s pick-up lines: Do age and personality matter? Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, Feb 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000286

Abstract: One way to initiate a conversation for the purposes of mate attraction is to use a pick-up line. While past research has addressed men’s use of pick-up lines, there has been far less research on those used by women. Here, we explored the perceived effectiveness of women’s pick-up lines, particularly with regard to one’s age but also as correlated with their Big Five personality factors. We hypothesized that both men and women would rate the same pick-up lines as effective and that older participants would rate pick-up lines as more effective than younger participants. Our results indicate that women’s use of direct pick-up lines, sharing things in common, asking for a phone number, indirectly hinting at a date, and asking if single were perceived as most effective by both sexes. We did not support our prediction about age. The results demonstrate that of the Big Five dimensions, extraversion in particular is important and was positively correlated with perceived effectiveness.

People are more likely to reveal secrets that violate their own moral values; were more willing to reveal immoral secrets as a form of punishment, and this was explained by feelings of moral outrage

Salerno, J. M., & Slepian, M. L. (2022). Morality, punishment, and revealing other people’s secrets. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Feb 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000284

Abstract: Nine studies represent the first investigation into when and why people reveal other people’s secrets. Although people keep their own immoral secrets to avoid being punished, we propose that people will be motivated to reveal others’ secrets to punish them for immoral acts. Experimental and correlational methods converge on the finding that people are more likely to reveal secrets that violate their own moral values. Participants were more willing to reveal immoral secrets as a form of punishment, and this was explained by feelings of moral outrage. Using hypothetical scenarios (Studies 1, 3–6), two controversial events in the news (hackers leaking citizens’ private information; Study 2a–2b), and participants’ behavioral choices to keep or reveal thousands of diverse secrets that they learned in their everyday lives (Studies 7–8), we present the first glimpse into when, how often, and one explanation for why people reveal others’ secrets. We found that theories of self-disclosure do not generalize to others’ secrets: Across diverse methodologies, including real decisions to reveal others’ secrets in everyday life, people reveal others’ secrets as punishment in response to moral outrage elicited from others’ secrets.