Why and how does early adversity influence development?

Why and how does early adversity influence development? Toward an integrated model of dimensions of environmental experience. Bruce J. Ellis, Margaret A. Sheridan, Jay Belsky and Katie A. McLaughlin. Development and Psychopathology, Mar 14 2022. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421001838

Abstract: Two extant frameworks – the harshness-unpredictability model and the threat-deprivation model – attempt to explain which dimensions of adversity have distinct influences on development. These models address, respectively, why, based on a history of natural selection, development operates the way it does across a range of environmental contexts, and how the neural mechanisms that underlie plasticity and learning in response to environmental experiences influence brain development. Building on these frameworks, we advance an integrated model of dimensions of environmental experience, focusing on threat-based forms of harshness, deprivation-based forms of harshness, and environmental unpredictability. This integrated model makes clear that the why and the how of development are inextricable and, together, essential to understanding which dimensions of the environment matter. Core integrative concepts include the directedness of learning, multiple levels of developmental adaptation to the environment, and tradeoffs between adaptive and maladaptive developmental responses to adversity. The integrated model proposes that proximal and distal cues to threat-based and deprivation-based forms of harshness, as well as unpredictability in those cues, calibrate development to both immediate rearing environments and broader ecological contexts, current and future. We highlight actionable directions for research needed to investigate the integrated model and advance understanding of dimensions of environmental experience.

Integrative discussion of harshness and deprivation

In addition to harm imposed by other agents, insufficient environmental inputs (material, energetic, or social) was another important source of harshness over human evolutionary history (Frankenhuis & Amir, Reference Frankenhuis and Amir2021). In this section, we focus on the adaptive problem of insufficient environmental inputs – a distinct set of selection pressures posed by the environment – and how developmental systems evolved to detect and respond to cues indicating the presence of this adaptive problem (Figure 1).

In early childhood, experiences of deprivation are often mediated through caregiver behavior, which is responsive to larger ecological conditions such as social/alloparental support, socioeconomic adversity, pathogen stress, and community-level violence (Belsky, Reference Belsky1984; Belsky et al., Reference Belsky, Steinberg and Draper1991; Eltanamly et al., Reference Eltanamly, Leijten, Jak and Overbeek2021; Quinlan, Reference Quinlan2007). The quantity and quality of interactions with caregivers contributes to early childhood experiences of deprivation. In traditional human societies, and by inference over human evolutionary history, some caregiver-mediated forms of deprivation (e.g., early weaning, low provisioning of food, low sleeping proximity to infants, reduced carrying of children, and caregiver neglect) increase childhood morbidity–mortality risk from causes such as malnutrition, disease, physical exposure, predation, and conspecific violence (Frankenhuis & Amir, Reference Frankenhuis and Amir2021; Quinlan, Reference Quinlan2007; Volk & Atkinson, Reference Volk and Atkinson2008, Reference Volk and Atkinson2013). For example, in traditional human societies, maternal mortality has catastrophic and universally negative effects on the survival of young children prior to weaning age (Sear & Mace, Reference Sear and Mace2008). From this perspective, significant experiences of deprivation (especially deprivation experiences that were reliably associated with morbidity–mortality over evolutionary history) are nested within harshness (Figure 1). Our developmental systems should have evolved to detect and respond to these forms of deprivation.Footnote⁴

Like cues to threat-based forms of harshness, cues to deprivation-based forms of harshness vary from more proximal to the child (e.g., caregiver neglect, limited social or cognitive input, food scarcity, homelessness and other forms of material deprivation) to more distal to the child (e.g., famine, drought, resource shortages, unemployment, and poverty). Proximal cues correspond to the concept of deprivation in the threat-deprivation model: infrequent or low-quality environmental inputs experienced by the child. Distal cues reflect ecological factors linked to deprivation. As shown in Figure 1, distal cues may signal morbidity–mortality risk from insufficient environmental inputs either directly or indirectly (through proximal cues).

In this paper, we have stipulated that threat-based forms of harshness (as well as unpredictability) both constrain development and regulate it toward strategies that are adaptive under stressful conditions. These adaptive arguments postulate that developmental adaptations to adversity evolved in response to environmental variation and function to match the developing phenotype to relevant conditions. Such arguments may be less applicable to deprivation, however, especially in its more severe forms. In many cases, developmental responses to deprivation can be more parsimoniously explained as attempts to spare or preserve function. Such responses may enable individuals to make the best of bad circumstances in the context of substantial developmental constraints (i.e., low survival, poor growth, reduced reproduction; see Bogin et al., Reference Bogin, Silva and Rios2007) imposed by deprivation-mediated tradeoffs. Making the best of bad circumstances means that individuals adjust their phenotypes to the deprived conditions under which they are developing – allowing them to achieve better survival and reproductive outcomes than if they did not adjust their phenotypes – but still fare worse than peers who did not experience deprivation. In this section, we consider such tradeoffs from the perspective of life history theory. We propose that (a) deprivation-mediated tradeoffs fundamentally involve sacrificing growth to reduce maintenance costs, and that such tradeoffs occur in response to both energetic deprivation (central to the harshness-unpredictability framework) and social/cognitive deprivation (central to the threat-deprivation framework); and (b) individuals mount responses to deprivation that enable them to make the best of bad circumstances.

Energetic deprivation

A major form of deprivation is nutritional, or energetic deprivation. Within a life history framework, a central assumption is that natural selection has favored physiological mechanisms that track variation in energetic conditions (i.e., resource availability, energy balance, and related physical condition) and adjust growth to match that variation (Ellis, Reference Ellis2004; Ellison, Reference Ellison2003). Consequently, a central resource-allocation tradeoff, beginning in the prenatal period, is between maintenance and growth (for an extensive review, see Bogin et al., Reference Bogin, Silva and Rios2007). A baseline level of energy expenditure is needed to maintain basic functioning and repair or preserve the soma (e.g., brain metabolism, digestion, immune function, cellular/DNA repair, pathogen and predator defenses). Above these baseline investments in maintenance, resources can be allocated to growth and eventually reproduction. Growth builds capacities that enhance overall reproductive potential; it encompasses developmental processes and activities that increase physical size as well as social and cognitive competencies (e.g., development of abstract information-processing capacities, acquisition of skills and knowledge).

Consistently enriched or supportive conditions in early and middle childhood may signal to the individual that investments in growth are sustainable. Conversely, conditions of chronic resource scarcity may shift individuals toward development of an energy-sparing phenotype that economizes somatic maintenance costs by limiting growth. Energetic deprivation was a common feature of ancestral human environments. In subsistence-level populations, low energy availability co-occurs with both periods of negative energy balance (when caloric expenditures exceed caloric intake) and high pathogen burden/immunological challenges (e.g., McDade, Reference McDade2003; Urlacher et al., Reference Urlacher, Ellison, Sugiyama, Pontzer, Eick, Liebert, Cepon-Robins, Gildner and Snodgrass2018). Energetic deprivation, as instantiated in this co-occurring set of conditions, is associated with slower growth, later sexual maturation, and smaller body size (e.g., Bogin et al., Reference Bogin, Silva and Rios2007; Ellis, Reference Ellis2004; Ellison, Reference Ellison2003); relatively low progesterone concentrations and reduced fecundity in women (Ellison, Reference Ellison2003; Jasienska et al., Reference Jasienska, Bribiescas, Furberg, Helle and Núñez-de la Mora2017); and relatively low testosterone concentrations and reduced skeletal muscle tissue in men (Bribiescas, Reference Bribiescas2001, Reference Bribiescas2010). These adjustments of life history-related traits to chronic ecological conditions are generally considered an example of adaptive phenotypic plasticity (Ellison, Reference Ellison2003; Ellis, Reference Ellis2004). In this case, energetic deprivation regulates development toward a slower life history strategy that is maintenance-cost-effective: growth is constrained, and reproductive capacity is achieved later in development.

Although energetic deprivation constrains growth and reproductive maturation, individuals should still mount responses to energetic deprivation that enable them to make the best of bad circumstances. Energetic deprivation, and the closely related conditions of pathogen stress (e.g., McDade, Reference McDade2003; Urlacher et al., Reference Urlacher, Ellison, Sugiyama, Pontzer, Eick, Liebert, Cepon-Robins, Gildner and Snodgrass2018) and warfare related to food shortages/food instability (Ember & Ember, Reference Ember and Ember1992), were major co-occurring causes of extrinsic morbidity–mortality over evolutionary history. These co-occurring environmental factors may have opposing effects on the development of life history strategies. Like developmental exposures to threat, cues to high pathogen stress (e.g., high local fatality rates from infectious disease) predict faster life history-related traits (Lu et al., Reference Lu, Wang, Liu and Chang2021; Quinlan, Reference Quinlan2007).Footnote⁵ This means that shifts toward slower life history strategies induced by energetic deprivation often occur in the context of countervailing shifts toward faster life history strategies in response to cues to extrinsic morbidity–mortality from other sources. For example, in a comparison of 22 small-scale human societies (hunter–gatherers and subsistence-based horticulturalists), poor energetic conditions were associated with later ages of menarche and first birth, whereas higher childhood mortality rates were associated with earlier ages of menarche and first birth (Walker et al., Reference Walker, Gurven, Hill, Migliano, Chagnon, De Souza, Djurovic, Hames, Hurtado, Kaplan, Kramer, Oliver, Valeggia and Yamauchi2006). Likewise, in cohort studies in Estonia, the Philippines, and Brazil, complex adversity exposures involving energetic deprivation together with other forms of harshness or unpredictability (e.g., poverty, parental instability, sibling death) predicted both later pubertal development and earlier ages at first reproduction (Gettler et al., Reference Gettler, McDade, Bragg, Feranil and Kuzawa2015; Hõrak et al., Reference Hõrak, Valge, Fischer, Mägi and Kaart2019; Valge et al., Reference Valge, Meitern and Hõrak2021; Wells et al., Reference Wells, Cole, Cortina-Borja, Sear, Leon, Marphatia, Murray, Wehrmeister, Oliveira, Gonçalves, Oliveira and Menezes2019). In the Brazilian cohort, other shifts toward faster life history-related traits were also observed, including greater risky behavior indicative of future discounting (i.e., smoking, criminal behavior) (Wells et al., Reference Wells, Cole, Cortina-Borja, Sear, Leon, Marphatia, Murray, Wehrmeister, Oliveira, Gonçalves, Oliveira and Menezes2019). In total, the literature on energetic deprivation in the context of harshness/unpredictability provides a textbook case of the complex – and sometimes countervailing nature – of developmental responses to adversity. Despite the negative effects of energetic deprivation on growth, broader phenotypic responses may still make the best of bad circumstances. Within ecological constraints, that potentially involves diverting resources toward earlier reproduction, as well as other shifts toward faster life history-related traits, particularly in relation to other cues to extrinsic morbidity–mortality or unpredictability.

Social/cognitive deprivation

The complex effects of energetic deprivation on reproductive development and behavior provide a model for considering the effects of social/cognitive deprivation on neurodevelopment and learning. Our developmental systems may have evolved to treat experiences of deprivation as privileged sources of information, using them as a basis for implementing developmental tradeoffs favoring maintenance over growth. Such tradeoffs fundamentally concern neurodevelopment, given the unusually high energetic costs of the human brain. Indeed, glucose consumed by the brain accounts for roughly 66% of the body’s resting metabolic rate and 43% of total energy expenditure in middle childhood (Kuzawa et al., Reference Kuzawa, Chugani, Grossman, Lipovich, Muzik, Hof, Wildman, Sherwood, Leonard and Lange2014). This high energetic cost reflects the size and complexity of the human brain, with its trillions of functional connections. Achieving high levels of neural complexity is costly – in terms of time, energy, and risk – and, critically, depends on adequate parental investment and social support (Snell-Rood & Snell-Rood, Reference Snell-Rood and Snell-Rood2020).

When such investment and support is lacking from the environment, one result may be reduced investment in neural development. Indeed, social and cognitive deprivation related to institutionalization, neglect, and other environments characterized by low levels of cognitive stimulation, such as lower socioeconomic status, have been consistently linked to reductions in brain volume, cortical surface area, and cortical thickness in children and adolescents. Reduced cortical volume, surface area, and thickness in children who have experienced deprivation are global, widespread, and occur not only in regions of association cortex but also in sensory cortex (Hanson, Hair et al., Reference Hanson, Hair, Shen, Shi, Gilmore, Wolfe and Pollak2013; Herzberg et al., Reference Herzberg, Hodel, Cowell, Hunt, Gunnar and Thomas2018; Hodel et al., Reference Hodel, Hunt, Cowell, Van Den Heuvel, Gunnar and Thomas2015; Mackey et al., Reference Mackey, Finn, Leonard, Jacoby-Senghor, West, Gabrieli and Gabrieli2015; McLaughlin, Sheridan, Winter et al., Reference McLaughlin, Sheridan, Winter, Fox, Zeanah and Nelson2014; Noble et al., Reference Noble, Houston, Brito, Bartsch, Kan, Kuperman, Akshoomoff, Amaral, Bloss, Libiger, Schork, Murray, Casey, Chang, Ernst, Frazier, Gruen, Kennedy, Van Zijl, Mostofsky and Sowell2015; Sheridan et al., Reference Sheridan, Fox, Zeanah, McLaughlin and Nelson2012). The precise cellular mechanisms contributing to thinner cortex, and whether these patterns reflect an acceleration or delay in neurodevelopment, remains unknown. Social/cognitive forms of deprivation in early life are also associated with reductions in the integrity of structural connections between brain areas across a wide range of white matter tracts (Eluvathingal et al., Reference Eluvathingal, Chugani, Behen, Juhasz, Muzik and Maqbool2006; Govindan et al., Reference Govindan, Behen, Helder, Makki and Chugani2010; Hanson, Adluru et al., Reference Hanson, Adluru, Chung, Alexander, Davidson and Pollak2013; Rosen et al., Reference Rosen, Sheridan, Sambrook, Meltzoff and McLaughlin2018). In total, substantial evidence suggests that deprivation in childhood is associated with a pattern of neurodevelopment that results in a smaller brain, as reflected by global reductions in cortical gray matter volume, surface, and thickness, as well as brain that is less connected, as revealed by a global decrease in the structural integrity of white matter tracts.

Deprivation-mediated reductions in neural growth and structural connectivity have been hypothesized to result in lower brain metabolic rates (Snell-Rood & Snell-Rood, Reference Snell-Rood and Snell-Rood2020). Thus, social/cognitive deprivation, like energetic deprivation, may shift individuals toward development of a maintenance-cost effective phenotype by constraining neural development. Stated differently, the effects of energetic and social/cognitive deprivation can be understood in terms of the same underlying tradeoff favoring maintenance over growth.

Research conducted within the threat-deprivation framework, and in developmental cognitive neuroscience more generally, has taken a deficit-based approach to deprivation. This is understandable, given the well-documented associations between social/cognitive deprivation and constraints on neurodevelopment and learning (see above, The Threat-Deprivation Framework). Nonetheless, an evolutionary-developmental perspective implies that children mount responses to deprivation that make the best of bad circumstances (see Ellis et al., Reference Ellis, Abrams, Masten, Sternberg, Tottenham and Frankenhuis2020). Such responses may involve the development of stress-adapted skills, or “hidden talents,” that enable adaptation within high-adversity contexts (Ellis et al., Reference Ellis, Bianchi, Griskevicius and Frankenhuis2017; Frankenhuis & de Weerth, Reference Frankenhuis and de Weerth2013), including rearing environments characterized by deprivation. Homeless youth, for example, generally experience considerable social, cognitive, and material deprivation. Although homeless youth tend to perform worse than comparison youth on executive function tasks, they have been found to perform as well or better on tests of creativity (Dahlman et al., Reference Dahlman, Bäckström, Bohlin and Frans2013; Fry, Reference Fry2018). Heightened creativity in the context of homelessness is presumably a stress-adapted skill for solving problems relevant to surviving in a deprived and unpredictable environment. Likewise, in explore-exploit decision-making tasks, previously institutionalized children use more exploitative strategies than peers raised in families (Humphreys et al., Reference Humphreys, Lee, Telzer, Gabard-Durnam, Goff, Flannery and Tottenham2015; Kopetz et al., Reference Kopetz, Woerner, MacPherson, Lejuez, Nelson, Zeanah and Fox2019; Loman et al., Reference Loman, Johnson, Quevedo, Lafavor and Gunnar2014). This exploitive strategy was detrimental under forgiving experimental conditions, but beneficial when conditions become harsh (i.e., when parameters of the task changed to hasten punishment) (Humphreys et al., Reference Humphreys, Lee, Telzer, Gabard-Durnam, Goff, Flannery and Tottenham2015). More generally, children exposed to deprived (as well as threatening) early environmental conditions – poverty, maternal disengagement, high neighborhood crime – may develop enhanced problem-solving skills for extracting fleeting or unpredictable rewards from the environment (Li et al., Reference Li, Sturge-Apple and Davies2021; Sturge-Apple et al., Reference Sturge-Apple, Davies, Cicchetti, Hentges and Coe2017; Suor et al., Reference Suor, Sturge-Apple, Davies and Cicchetti2017). Research documenting such hidden talents, however, does not condone exposing children to experiences that are obviously impairing in modern life. Instead, observations of how neural and cognitive function adapt to harsh early circumstances may support a strengths-based approach to intervention that leverages stress-adapted skills (Ellis et al., Reference Ellis, Bianchi, Griskevicius and Frankenhuis2017, Reference Ellis, Abrams, Masten, Sternberg, Tottenham and Frankenhuis2020).

Directions for future research

Little attempt has been made to study the potentially opposing effects of energetic deprivation and other forms of harshness on life history-related traits, or to link the patterns of cognitive and neurodevelopment associated with social/cognitive deprivation with life history traits. These represent obvious avenues for future research to investigate the ideas advanced here. Research is also needed to test the “maintenance-cost effective phenotype” hypothesis, especially in relation to neural development. See Table 2 for more specific directions for future research.

Neural mechanisms underlying sex differences in aggression could potentially explain sexual dimorphism in neuropsychiatric disorders and improve dysregulated aggressive behavior

Structural and functional biomarkers of the insula subregions predict sex differences in aggression subscales. Haixia Long,Ming Fan, Qiaojun Li, Xuhua Yang, Yujiao Huang, Xinli Xu, Ji Ma, Jie Xiao, Tianzi Jiang. Human Brain Mapping, March 15 2022. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25826

Abstract: Aggression is a common and complex social behavior that is associated with violence and mental diseases. Although sex differences were observed in aggression, the neural mechanism for the effect of sex on aggression behaviors remains unclear, especially in specific subscales of aggression. In this study, we investigated the effects of sex on aggression subscales, gray matter volume (GMV), and functional connectivity (FC) of each insula subregion as well as the correlation of aggression subscales with GMV and FC. This study found that sex significantly influenced (a) physical aggression, anger, and hostility; (b) the GMV of all insula subregions; and (c) the FC of the dorsal agranular insula (dIa), dorsal dysgranular insula (dId), and ventral dysgranular and granular insula (vId_vIg). Additionally, mediation analysis revealed that the GMV of bilateral dIa mediates the association between sex and physical aggression, and left dId–left medial orbital superior frontal gyrus FC mediates the relationship between sex and anger. These findings revealed the neural mechanism underlying the sex differences in aggression subscales and the important role of the insula in aggression differences between males and females. This finding could potentially explain sexual dimorphism in neuropsychiatric disorders and improve dysregulated aggressive behavior.

4 DISCUSSION

This study mainly investigated the association between sex, structure, and function of the insula and aggression subscales. We identified significant effects of sex on physical aggression, anger and hostility. Sex also influenced the GMV and FC of insula subregions. Even more striking, the GMV of the left dIa and right dIa mediated the association between sex and physical aggression, and the left dId–left ORBsupmed FC mediated the association between sex and anger, which may reveal the underlying neural mechanism of sex differences in aggression subscales.

The observed significant effect of sex on the physical aggression is consistent with previous studies that showed males tended to take physical aggression action more than females (Archer, 2004; Gerevich et al., 2007; Harris & Knight-Bohnhoff, 1996; Kalmoe, 2015; Sadiq & Shafiq, 2020). Additionally, we also found sex difference in hostility, that is, males having higher hostility than females, which is in line with a previous finding that males showed more hostility than females in Spanish and Japanese samples (Ramirez et al., 2001). These findings indicated that physical aggression may be associated with hostility. In addition, the higher anger scores in females than in males were also similar to the results in Isanzu and Buryats (Butovskaya et al., 2020). Additionally, an fMRI experiment of facial expressions also showed higher anger recognition levels in females than in males (Dores, Barbosa, Queiros, Carvalho, & Griffiths, 2020), which indicates their emotional dysregulation.

The insula is a heterogeneous brain region and is involved in various functions, such as emotion, cognitive control, attention, memory, perception, motor, and conscious awareness (Craig, 2009; Kurth, Zilles, Fox, Laird, & Eickhoff, 2010; Menon & Uddin, 2010; Uddin, Kinnison, Pessoa, & Anderson, 2014). This study used the Human Brainnetome Atlas to divide the insula into six subregions, including a dorsal anterior insula, a ventral anterior insula, a central region, a more ventral region, and two posterior subregions (Fan et al., 2016). In brief, the dorsal anterior insula is associated with cognitive function, the ventral anterior insula is associated with social–emotional tasks, and the mid-posterior insula is related to interoception, perception, somatosensation, pain, and motor (Chang, Yarkoni, Khaw, & Sanfey, 2013; Kelly et al., 2012; Kurth, Eickhoff, et al., 2010; Kurth, Zilles, et al., 2010; Uddin, Nomi, Hebert-Seropian, Ghaziri, & Boucher, 2017). Previous studies found that males exhibited significantly larger volumes across many cortex regions, including the insula, than females (Oz et al., 2021; Wierenga et al., 2014), which indicated sex differences in cortical development. Other studies have shown that sex affected the volumes of insula subregions. A related study demonstrated that males with posttraumatic stress symptoms had a larger volume of ventral anterior insula than females with posttraumatic stress symptoms, but this difference was not significant in control subjects (Klabunde et al., 2017). Another study found the larger GMV of the posterior insula in females than in males (Lotze et al., 2019). The inconsistent results of previous studies may be associated with different contexts of subjects and different locations of the insula. Therefore, our study investigated more fine-grained insula subregions based on the Brainnetome atlas and found that males showed the larger GMV of each insula subregion than females, which was partly consistent with previous studies and revealed sex difference in brain maturation, with cortex volume decreasing more in females than males during puberty (Vijayakumar et al., 2016; Wierenga et al., 2014).

In addition, we also found the mediation of bilateral dIa GMV on the association between sex and physical aggression. The dIa belongs to the anterior insula and is related to cognitive tasks, decision making, and awareness (Craig, 2009; Deen, Pitskel, & Pelphrey, 2011). The anterior insula, which is involved in the salience network, is associated with social cognition and evaluation, and is sensitive to social saliency (Achterberg et al., 2016; Achterberg et al., 2018; Cacioppo et al., 2013). In addition, prior studies found that 19% of the variance in callous-unemotional traits was explained by the GMV of the anterior insula in males, and callous-unemotional traits were related to physical aggression (Raschle et al., 2018; Wright, Hill, Pickles, & Sharp, 2019). The fMRI studies also showed an association between anterior insula and reactive aggression and motor impulsivity (Chester et al., 2014; Dambacher et al., 2015; Werhahn et al., 2020). Therefore, compared with females, males received more social salience stimuli because of greater GMVs of bilateral dIa, which led to more physical aggression.

On the other hand, this study investigated the effect of sex on the FC of insula subregions. First, we found males showing greater FC between dIa and some prefrontal and parietal cortex, such as ORBinf, ORBsupmed, PCUN, and PUT, which was similar to previous studies (Hong et al., 2014; Sie et al., 2019). Additionally, there was significantly increased dId–MTG FC, dId–ORBinf FC and dId–ORBsupmed FC in males compared with females in our study, and the core affected regions are consistent with Dai et al.'s study (Dai et al., 2018). In addition, vId_vIg showed increased FC with ORBinf.R and decreased connectivity with Cbe9.L and CUN.R in males rather than in females, while a previous study found that women have greater FC between the posterior insula and cerebellum crus I (Sie et al., 2019), which was associated with autonomic regulation (Beissner, Meissner, Bar, & Napadow, 2013). Other studies considered the insula as a whole and found significant sex differences in FC between the insula and prefrontal cortex and sensorimotor cortex, where men showed increased FC in the insula than women (Jin et al., 2019). The effect of sex on FC mainly focuses on the relationship between the insula and brain regions in the default mode network (DMN) (Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, & Schacter, 2008; Liu et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2009). Overall, compared with females, males demonstrated a stronger modulation of insula subregions in the DMN, while the modulation of vId_vIg on Cbe9 and CUN was weaker in males than in females for the compensation mechanism.

Moreover, correlation analysis and mediation analysis revealed the important role of left dId–left ORBsupmed FC in mediating the relationship between sex and anger. The dId belongs to the middle insula and is related to interoception, sensory perception, and somatosensation (Kelly et al., 2012; Kurth, Zilles, et al., 2010). The functional experiment showed that middle insula activity was associated with tolerance of anger expression (de Greck et al., 2012). Anger is a common experience during interpersonal communication, and some interpersonal conflict behaviors, such as unfair treatment and personal insults, may arouse anger (Averill, 1983; Baumeister, Stillwell, & Wotman, 1990; Gilam & Hendler, 2017). Moreover, anger is associated with emotion underregulation, and ORBsupmed is an important region of the emotion regulation network (Gilam & Hendler, 2017). Gilam et al.'s tDCS-fMRI study validated the role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in anger regulation (Gilam et al., 2018). Another study demonstrated that mPFC activity was positively correlated with self-reported anger (Siep et al., 2019). Functional and effective connectivity analysis studies further illustrated that the FC of the mPFC and OFC was related to anger and proactive violence, and the effective connectivity among the insula, OFC and superior temporal gyrus was involved in anger processing (Eshel et al., 2021; Romero-Martinez et al., 2019; Seok & Cheong, 2019). It is interesting to note the mediation effect of FC between left dId and left ORBsupmed on the relationship between sex and anger. The negative correlation between left dId–left ORBsupmed FC and anger indicated that the greater FC the subjects had, the stronger emotional regulation they showed, leading to less anger. Therefore, males showed stronger emotion regulation and less anger than females.

There are several limitations in the present study. First, our study only included Chinese samples to avoid stratification artifacts. Previous studies have shown that cultural background may influence aggression behavior (Butovskaya et al., 2020; Hyde, 2014; Ramirez et al., 2001). Therefore, further studies in different populations are needed to clarify the effect of sex on aggression in different populations. Second, our study only investigated the effect of sex on aggression and related neural mechanisms. In fact, aggression is a very complex social behavior that is influenced by multiple factors, such as genetic or environmental factors. Thus, further studies are needed to assess the effects of other factors on aggression. Advanced studies using machine learning models are also needed to predict aggression based on images and behavior measures. Third, although the Brainnetome atlas has been validated to effectively define more fine-grained brain subregions and is consistent with other brain parcellation atlases (Fan et al., 2016), the impact of the potential interindividual variability of the insular subregions should also be investigated in further studies.

Kerala migrants who return from Saudi Arabia exhibit more conservative values regarding gender-based violence & extreme attitudes on the perpetration of physical violence against women (compared to non-migrants or other Gulf migrants)

Beyond Money: Does Migration Experience Transfer Gender Norms? Empirical Evidence from Kerala, India. George Joseph et al. World Bank Policy Research Paper 9966. Mar 2022. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/174061647271379501/pdf/Beyond-Money-Does-Migration-Experience-Transfer-Gender-Norms-Empirical-Evidence-from-Kerala-India.pdf

Abstract: This paper examines the impact of return migration from Saudi Arabia and the Gulf on the transfer of gender norms to the Indian state of Kerala. Migration to countries in the Middle East has led to significant remittance flows and economic prosperity, although the effects on social norms and attitudes remain largely unexplored. The paper finds that returning migrants from Saudi Arabia tend to exhibit conservative values regarding gender-based violence and extreme attitudes pertaining to the perpetration of physical violence against women. Compared with those who have no migration experience, the attitudes of returning migrants from Saudi Arabia toward gender-based violence were more conservative by three standard deviations, while the attitudes of those returning from the Gulf were less conservative by 0.5 standard deviation. Similarly, compared with those with no migration experience, returning migrants from Saudi Arabia were more conservative by 2.6 standard deviations regarding extreme attitudes related to gender norms, such as sexual assault, while those returning from the Gulf were less conservative by 0.7 standard deviation. These results show that migration experience can have a substantial impact on the gender attitudes of returning migrants, with potential implications for migration and gender policies in Kerala and for countries that send a large share of temporary migrants overseas for work.

Girls express more intergroup bias against boys than boys against girls: Girls widely believe “boys are bad," possibly due aversion to boys’ rough-and-tumble play, competitiveness, actual negative experiences of teasing, harassment, exclusion by boys

Enjoying Each Other’s Company: Gaining Other-Gender Friendships Promotes Positive Gender Attitudes Among Ethnically Diverse Children. May Ling D. Halim et al. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, February 8, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220984407

Abstract: Gender segregation is ubiquitous and may lead to increased bias against other-gender peers. In this study, we examined whether individual differences in friendships with other-gender children reduce gender bias, and whether these patterns vary by gender or ethnicity. Using a 1-year longitudinal design (N = 408 second graders [Mage = 7.56 years] and fourth graders [Mage = 9.48 years]), we found that, across groups, gaining more other-gender friendships over the year led to (a) increased positive cognitive-based attitudes toward the other gender and (b) increased positive and decreased negative affect when with the other gender. We also tested the reverse pattern and found support for a bidirectional link. Girls and Latinx children often showed more gender bias than did boys and European American children. Implications for promoting positive relationships between girls and boys are discussed.

Keywords: cross-group friendships, gender attitudes, intergroup contact theory, intergroup processes, gender stereotypes

Couples who pool all of their money (compared to couples who keep all or some of their money separate) experience greater relationship satisfaction and are less likely to break up; the effect is particularly strong among couples with scarce resources

Gladstone, J. J., Garbinsky, E. N., & Mogilner, C. (2022). Pooling finances and relationship satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Mar 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000388

When couples decide to share their lives, they are simultaneously faced with the decision of how (or whether) to pool their finances. Does the way in which couples keep their money affect happiness in their relationship? Drawing on Interdependence Theory, we demonstrate across six studies (N = 38,534)—including both primary and secondary data—that couples who pool all of their money (compared to couples who keep all or some of their money separate) experience greater relationship satisfaction and are less likely to break up. Though joining bank accounts can benefit all couples, the effect is particularly strong among couples with scarce financial resources (i.e., those with low household income or who report feeling financially distressed). These findings replicate using experimental, cross-sectional, and longitudinal data sets, as well as in both individualistic and collectivist cultures.

Women responded more modestly to a compliment than men did; & responded more modestly after receiving a compliment from a same or lower status—compared to higher status—peer, but men showed no effect of relative status

Perilloux, C., & Cloud, J. M. (2022). This old thing? Responding to compliments depends on sex and relative status. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 16(2), 128–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000259

Abstract: The purpose of the current research was to explore responses to compliments based on participant sex and relative status. We predicted that women would respond more modestly to compliments than men would, and that women would respond more modestly to compliments from equal or lower status women as opposed to from higher status women, whereas men’s responses would be unaffected by status. In Study 1, participants read three vignettes in which they imagined being complimented by a same-sex peer and chose the reaction they would most likely give. Consistent with our prediction, women responded more modestly to a compliment than men did. In Study 2, we randomly assigned participants to one of three hypothetical scenarios in which they received a compliment from a member of the same sex whose relative status to them was either higher, lower, or equal, and participants entered their response in an open-ended format. Confirming our second prediction, women responded more modestly after receiving a compliment from a same or lower status—compared to higher status—peer, but men showed no effect of relative status. Our results converge with those of past research showing that women are more sensitive than men to same-sex peers perceiving them as potential competitors.

Postnatal maternal mood provides evidence for the psychic pain hypothesis; mothers’ depressive mood was sensitive to subtle signs of lower infant health

Kardum, I., Hudek-Knezevic, J., Kalebić Maglica, B., & Shackelford, T. K. (2022). Postnatal maternal mood provides evidence for the psychic pain hypothesis. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 16(2), 116–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000256

Abstract: We tested predictions derived from the psychic pain hypothesis according to which depressive symptoms after delivery signal to a mother that she is suffering or has suffered a fitness loss. The predictions were tested on a range of mild emotional states, that is, moods, which allowed us to assess whether the consequences of unfavorable maternal conditions are limited to depressive mood or include other negative and positive moods. In a longitudinal study of 150 women, we measured positive and negative moods twice: during the last trimester of pregnancy and 1–3 months after delivery. As an index of infant quality, we used the mean of Apgar scores measured at 1 and 5 min after delivery, and as an index of maternal circumstances, we used perceived family social support. Supporting the psychic pain hypothesis, after controlling for mothers’ moods before delivery, Apgar score and perceived family social support as well as their interaction predicted mothers’ negative moods after delivery, especially depressive mood and rejection. Additionally, mothers’ depressive mood was sensitive to subtle signs of lower infant health. Perceived family social support and Apgar score were weaker predictors of mothers’ positive moods after delivery. Theoretical and practical implication of these results are discussed.