Sexual attraction to men as a risk factor for eating disorders: the role of mating expectancies and drive for thinness

Sexual attraction to men as a risk factor for eating disorders: the role of mating expectancies and drive for thinness. Pedro María Ruiz de Assin Varela, Jose Manuel Caperos & Elena Gismero-González. Journal of Eating Disorders volume 10, Article number: 52. Apr 15 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40337-022-00576-z

Abstract

Background: Men tend to give more importance than women to physical aspects when selecting a partner; thus, the internalization of beauty standards and the ideal of thinness may be greater in populations attracted to men, placing them at a higher risk of eating disorders.

Methods: In a sample (n = 398) of heterosexual and gay men and women, we evaluated the drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and bulimic symptomatology. Using ANCOVAs, we analyzed the differences in symptoms score according to sex, sexual orientation and relational status including body mass index (BMI) as covariate; we also evaluated the mediating role of drive for thinness in the relationship between sexual orientation and body dissatisfaction.

Results: We found an increased drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction in men-attracted compared with women-attracted participants; also, body dissatisfaction was greater in women than in men. Heterosexual women presented higher bulimia scores than lesbian women. Gay men open to relationships presented higher drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction scores than those not-open to relationships. Finally, differences in body dissatisfaction between gay and heterosexual men were fully explained by drive for thinness, while, in the case of women, drive for thinness only partially explained these differences.

Conclusions: Attraction to men seems to be a risk factor for EDs in the case of gay men and heterosexual women. In addition, in the case of heterosexual women, other factors independent of the desire to attract men seem to be important.

Plain English summary: Eating disorders (EDs) are important and common diseases that affect different groups of people differently. Specifically, various studies show a higher prevalence of eating disorders in gay men and heterosexual women. This could be interpreted to be a result of their attraction to men, who tend to place a greater importance on physical attractiveness when looking for a partner. In this study, we compared different ED symptomatology (drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and bulimia) in a sample of heterosexual and gay men and women, addressing their relationship with sex, sexual orientation, and relational status. We found an increased drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction in men-attracted (gay men and heterosexual women) compared with women-attracted participants (heterosexual men and lesbian women); also, body dissatisfaction was greater in women than in men regardless of the sexual orientation. Finally, heterosexual women presented higher bulimia scores than lesbian women, and gay men open to relationships presented higher drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction scores than those not-open to relationships (and therefore less inclined to try to attract other people sexually). In summation, our results seem to support the idea that attraction to men seems to be a risk factor for EDs in the case of gay men and heterosexual women, although, in the case of women other factors that are independent of sexual orientation should also be important.

Discussion

Regarding the first aim of the study, and as previously described in the literature [7, 8, 12, 16], heterosexual women and gay men presented greater ED symptomatology than lesbian women and heterosexual men, but these differences depended on the specific symptomatology evaluated. In the case of drive for thinness, differences appeared in the men-attracted group, and, in this group, symptomatology was greater in men than women; Body dissatisfaction was greater in men-attracted participants regardless of their sex but was also higher in women regardless of their sexual orientation; Bulimia symptomatology was much greater in heterosexual than in lesbian women and was similar to men, regardless of their sexual orientation.

As proposed by Siever [27], ED risk may be partially driven by mating motivations. Given that men place more importance on body shape and physical features than women when choosing potential partners [26], people attracted to men may be under greater pressure to have an attractive physique, focusing on those aspects that are mainly considered to be attractive. The thin-ideal is typically the most widespread Western ideal of beauty [43]; and the internalization of thin-ideal places men-attracted people at risk of body dissatisfaction symptomatology. In recent years, the use of social media has been widely related to the exposure and internalization of such ideals [44,45,46,47,48]. Social networks affect the self-image of both men and women and, therefore, their idealized content serves as a comparison criterion for both sexes [49].

Gay men presented the highest drive for thinness scores of the four groups, higher than heterosexual women, suggesting a particular vulnerability to thin-ideal internalization. Some studies reported that bisexual and gay men are more susceptible than heterosexual men to social messages focusing on physical appearance [50] and place more importance on physical appearance and attractiveness [51]. Notably, Gigi et al. [50] found that they showed increased attention to social comparison information, increased internalization of cultural ideals presented in the media about appearance, and susceptibility to the influence of advertisements that emphasize appearance, which was interpreted as a consequence of interest to please other men. In this regard, Li et al. [30] reported that, when faced with a context of intrasexual competition, gay men reported more restrictive eating attitudes and more body image concerns than in non-competitive scenarios or than heterosexual men. According to the authors, contexts of intrasexual competition should elicit desires to be especially thin for many individuals given that intrasexual competition is established in relation to those characteristics that are desirable.

In the case of body dissatisfaction, on the one hand, we found a main effect of sexual orientation. Body dissatisfaction was higher in gay men than in heterosexual men, and also in heterosexual woman than in lesbian women. He et al. [52] analyzed 75 primary studies published between 1986 and 2019, finding that sexual minority men had a higher level of body dissatisfaction than heterosexual men (57 studies, 128 effect sizes), with small to medium effect sizes. This result partially support Siever’s view, as well as suggesting that the internalization of thin-ideal by women and gay men places men-attracted people at risk of body dissatisfaction symptomatology. Meanwhile, on the other hand, we also found a main effect of sex, with women presenting higher scores than men, regardless of their sexual orientation. In general, women are under greater sociocultural pressure of an aesthetic ideal and most studies reported a higher prevalence of body dissatisfaction in women [53]. Women, for example, have lower body satisfaction than men regardless of their BMI [54]. Up to 80% of women respondents expressed current dissatisfaction with their bodies [55], and body dissatisfaction was found to be the most potent predictor of EDs [56]. Social pressures mean that women see their appearance as a fundamental factor in their value as individuals and expect others to routinely examine them [57]. This may lead them to scrutinize their body image, increasing the risk of being dissatisfied with it [58, 59].

In the case of bulimia, lesbian women reported the lowest bulimia scores, being much lower than heterosexual women, while for men there were no differences based on sexual orientation. Higher body dissatisfaction was found to be a predictor of bulimia [53]. Gay men also presented high levels of body dissatisfaction; however, this did not translate into a high rate of reported bulimia symptomatology. Given that gay men still emphasize the importance of a lean but also athletic physique, with a low percentage of body fat [51, 60, 61], it seems logical that they would seek to minimize behaviors contrary to that ideal. In this sense, some authors already propose that for men, sexual attraction to men would only be a risk factor for restrictive eating symptomatology [14, 29]. Although there are others who continue to find significant differences in measures of bulimia or impulse regulation [33].

Lesbian women presented the lowest bulimia symptomatology. This result is in line with other studies suggesting that, in women, a lesbian sexual orientation would be a protective factor against EDs [12], being associated with lower body dissatisfaction [16, 17]. However, similar research has yielded contradictory results: Dotan et al. [62], in a recent meta-analysis examining the association between sexual orientation and disordered eating in women, reported that there was no significant difference in overall disordered eating between lesbians and heterosexual women, however, lesbians reported restricting less and bingeing more than heterosexual women.

The second aim of our study was to evaluate the effect of relationship status on ED symptomatology. According to Siever’s hypothesis, a greater symptomatology would be expected when looking for/or open to a new relationship than when monogamously mated. As expected, we found that gay men presented higher scores for body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness if they were looking for/or open to new romantic or sexual partners. This result would indicate a greater attention/concern to the evaluation of their own physical appearance when looking for partner. As Siever [27] suggested, gay men pursuing a partner suffer increased pressure to be physically attractive, and those who feel they do not meet the high attractiveness ideals of the gay community may experience heightened body image concerns, as they feel their bodies may not be appealing enough to attract a partner. Men in relationships may be less exposed to objectifying experiences within the gay culture compared with single men actively pursuing partners and putting themselves in environments where such pursuits may occur, such as in gay clubs or on dating websites and apps [63]. As Parker and Harriger [64] pointed out, among sexual minority men, the use of dating apps was found to be an ED risk factor, which is likely due to the added pressure to adhere to a certain aesthetic to attract more potential sexual partners. Brown and Keel [65] showed that, although it made no difference to heterosexual men, bisexual and gay men who were single had an increased drive for thinness, and that being in a relationship may be a protective factor for body image concerns and disordered eating among gay men. Cella et al. [33] also found gay sexual orientation associated with greater body dissatisfaction and abnormal eating behaviors in men, especially among those who were not in a sentimental relationship. All these findings support the notion that single men may be more concerned with their appearance than those in relationships; our results also support that gay men are at higher risk when they are open to finding a new partner.

In contrast, we did not find an effect of relationship status on the symptomatology of heterosexual women. As stated previously, Siever’s [27] hypothesis does not seem to apply fully in the case of women. This result is consistent with other studies that found that the symptomatology of lesbian women was not always less than that of heterosexual women [62], and that explanatory models of ED etiology followed similar patterns in lesbian and heterosexual women, but not in heterosexual and gay men [66]. Our mediation analysis pointed suggestively in the same direction. While in men the differences in body dissatisfaction derived from sexual orientation were fully explained by their drive for thinness, in the case of women, thinness only partially explained body dissatisfaction. Thus, the thin-ideal seem to fully explain differences in body dissatisfaction between heterosexual and gay men, but not completely between heterosexual and lesbian women.

The cognitive component of body dissatisfaction has been considered to contain two categories, preoccupation with the body and self-objectification on the one hand, and internalization of the thin-ideal, on the other [43]. Objectification theory [57] posits that girls and women are acculturated to internalize an observer’s perspective as a primary view of their physical selves, and that women could respond to sexual objectification in function of sexuality, age, ethnicity, and other physical and personal attributes. Cultural objectification can be internalized as self-objectification leading to increased body monitoring and body dissatisfaction [67,68,69]. Therefore, differences between lesbian and heterosexual women may lie not only in the direction of the attraction, but in a different internalization of gender roles [70, 71]. Gender role adoption is related to body dissatisfaction and EDs [72] and femininity has been considered a more critical factor than sexual preference on ED psychopathology [73]. The comparison of women with different sexual orientations could be involving two different issues, differences in the orientation of their attraction (mediated by the interiorization of beauty ideals), and differences in the process of socialization. This would explain both the inconsistency of results found in the literature on the relationship between sexual orientation and EDs in the case of women, as well as the results of the present study.

This study has several limitations. First, given the split of the sample into groups of sex, sexual orientation, and relationship status, some of these groups presented small sample sizes and the associated tests might have low statistical power. Likewise, the absence of significant results in some groups should be taken with caution. Despite this, descriptive measures of effect size seem to point in the direction of our conclusions. Second, we use the drive for thinness measure as a measure of the degree of internalization of thin-ideal, which does not fully correspond. However, different studies show a positive relationship between the two measures [74,75,76], therefore, we consider that the conclusions derived from the results are appropriate. Finally, while aiming to evaluate risk factors, the cross-sectional nature of data collection does not allow us to follow the evolution of the symptoms or to distinguish in the mediation models the antecedent variables from their outcomes.

The most off-putting flirting dealbreakers included having a slimy approach, bad hygiene, and not demonstrating exclusive interest

What constitutes bad flirting: An explorative study of dealbreakers. Menelaos Apostolou, Chrysovalanto Eleftheriou. Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 194, August 2022, 111665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111665

Highlights

• Identified 69 acts and traits that people find off-putting in flirting

• Identified 11 broader flirting-dealbreakers

• Found that women and older participants were more sensitive to flirting-dealbreakers

Abstract: Flirting is essential for attracting mates yet, many people do poorly in it. Accordingly, the current research aimed to address the question what are dealbreakers in flirting. More specifically, by using open-ended questionnaires in a sample of 212 Greek-speaking participants, Study 1 identified 69 acts and traits that people find off-putting in flirting. Study 2, asked a sample of 734 Greek-speaking participants to rate how off-putting they found these traits in a partner. On the basis of participants' responses, these traits were classified into 11 broader flirting dealbreakers. The most off-putting ones, included having a slimy approach, bad hygiene, and not demonstrating exclusive interest. It was also found that women and older participants were more sensitive to almost all of the identified dealbreakers than men and younger participants.

Keywords: FlirtingFlirting dealbreakersMatingMate preferences

Time was remembered as passing more quickly during alcohol, cocaine and MDMA use, while marijuana was associated with a subjective slowing of time

The Influence of Recreational Drug Use on Experiences of the Passage of Time. Ruth S. Ogden and Joseph Faulkner. Sucht, Apr 13 2022. https://doi.org/10.1024/0939-5911/a000761

Abstract

Background: Laboratory research suggests that alcohol, marijuana, cocaine and MDMA influence the processing of time. Anecdotal reports of recreational drug use also often include descriptions of changes in the speed of the passage of time. Despite this, little is known about how and why recreational drug use influences the passage of time.

Aim: To examine retrospective self-reports of the passage of time during a previous instance of alcohol, cannabis, cocaine or MDMA use. To establish the effect of substance use frequency, substance dose, anxiety, depression and stress on the passage of time.

Methods: Using an online questionnaire, passage of time judgments were collected for the current day as well as recent instances of alcohol, cocaine, marijuana or MDMA use. Measures of affect, typical substance use frequency and substance use amount were taken.

Results: Time was remembered as passing significantly more quickly than normal during alcohol, cocaine and MDMA use. Marijuana was associated with time passing more slowly than normal. Regression analysis revealed that drug induced distortions to the passage of time use were not predicted by drug use frequency, dose, depression, anxiety or stress. Furthermore, comparison of recreational drug users and non-users did not indicate any long-term effects of drug use on the passage of time. 

Conclusions: The results suggest that whilst distortions to the passage of time are a common feature of drug use, their causes are complex.

Similar to animals, humans are endowed with ‘nutritional wisdom’, guiding them to instinctively choose foods that satisfy requirements for specific micronutrients

Micronutrients and food choice: A case of ‘nutritional wisdom’ in humans? Jeffrey M. Brunstrom, Mark Schatzker. Appetite, April 18 2022, 106055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2022.106055

Abstract: Many reports show that non-human animals have the ability to select foods based on their micronutrient composition. However, it is unclear whether humans also have this ability, and we have lacked appropriate methods to investigate this question. In response to this challenge, we developed an approach that derives evidence from patterns of choices across a range of food images. In two studies (Study 1, N = 45; Study 2, N = 83) adults selected one of two pairs of fruits and vegetables in a series of trials (N = 210). Consistent with variety seeking, they preferred ‘varied’ over ‘monotonous’ pairs (same-food pairs were less attractive). However, and even after controlling for explicit nutritional knowledge (Study 2) and food energy density (Study 1 and 2), we observed a significant tendency to select pairings that offered: i) greater total micronutrient intake and ii) greater ‘micronutrient complementarity’ (MC), i.e., a broader range of micronutrients. In a separate analysis, a similar pattern was observed in two-component meals (e.g., steak and fries) drawn from a large national nutrition survey in the UK (1086 records). Specifically, the MC of these meals was greater than would be predicted by chance (p < .0001) and when a meal provided an excess of micronutrients (>100% daily recommended amount) then this occurred less often than by chance (p < .0001), i.e., ‘micronutrient redundancy’ was avoided. Together, this work provides new evidence that micronutrient composition influences food choice (a form of ‘nutritional wisdom’) and it raises questions about whether nutritional requirements are otherwise met through dietary ‘variety seeking’. In turn, it also exposes the potential for a complexity in human dietary decision making that has not been recognised previously.

Keywords: Nutritional wisdomNutritionFood choiceMicronutrientSensory specific satietyVariety seeking

A higher pulse rate predicts lower life satisfaction, poorer health, and lower labor market status

Taking the Pulse of Nations: A Biometric Measure of Well-being. David G. Blanchflower, Alex Bryson. Economics & Human Biology, Apr 18 2022, 101141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2022.101141

Highlights

• We introduce a biometric measure of wellbeing – pulse – that has been little used.

• We show that its correlates are similar in a number of ways to those for happiness, and that it is highly correlated with wellbeing metrics, as well as self-assessed health.

• The probability of working at age 55 is negatively impacted by pulse rate a decade earlier. The pulse rate has an impact over and above chronic pain measured at age 42.

• General health at 55 is lower the higher the pulse rate at age 42, while those with higher pulse rates at 42 also express lower life satisfaction and more pessimism about the future at age 50.

• Taken together, these results suggest social scientists can learn a great deal by adding pulse rates to the metrics they use when evaluating people’s wellbeing.

Abstract: A growing literature identifies associations between subjective and biometric indicators of wellbeing. These associations, together with the ability of subjective wellbeing metrics to predict health and behavioral outcomes, have spawned increasing interest in wellbeing as an important concept in its own right. However, some social scientists continue to question the usefulness of wellbeing metrics. We contribute to this literature in three ways. First, we introduce a biometric measure of wellbeing – pulse – that hs been little used. Using nationally representative data on 165,000 individuals from the Health Survey for England and Scottish Health Surveys we show that its correlates are similar in a number of ways to those for happiness, and that it is highly correlated with wellbeing metrics, as well as self-assessed health. Second, we examine the determinants of pulse rates in mid-life (age 42) among the 9,000 members of the National Child Development Study, a birth cohort born in a single week in 1958 in Britain. Third, we track the impact of pulse measured in mid-life (age 42) on health and labor market outcomes at age 50 in 2008 and age 55 in 2013. The probability of working at age 55 is negatively impacted by pulse rate a decade earlier. The pulse rate has an impact over and above chronic pain measured at age 42. General health at 55 is lower the higher the pulse rate at age 42, while those with higher pulse rates at 42 also express lower life satisfaction and more pessimism about the future at age 50. Taken together, these results suggest social scientists can learn a great deal by adding pulse rates to the metrics they use when evaluating people’s wellbeing.

JEL Classification I10 J1

Keywords: pulsewellbeingmental healthgeneral healthlife satisfactionpaid worklife-coursebirth cohortNCDS

Adverse mental health effects of spanking (delinquency, depression, and alcohol use) can be attributed to a considerable extent to hereditary similarities between parents and children

The effects of spanking on psychosocial outcomes: revisiting genetic and environmental covariation. Nicole Barbaro, Eric J. Connolly, Madi Sogge, Todd K. Shackelford & Brian B. Boutwell. Journal of Experimental Criminology, April 18 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-021-09496-5

Abstract

Background: There is a vast literature on the negative associations between spanking in childhood and various psychosocial developmental outcomes; yet, control for potential genetic confounds is rare.

Objectives: The current research aimed to provide probable ranges of estimates of the degree to which genetic and nonshared environmental covariation could explain the reported phenotypic effects in the Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, Family Relations 65:490–501, 2016a, Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, Journal of Family Psychology 30:453, 2016b) meta-analysis of spanking.

Participants and setting: The analytic sample for Study 1 was secured from the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (CNLSY) and consisted of 2868 respondents (siblings and half-siblings). The data for Study 2 were secured from the published literature.

Methods: Study 1 analyzed the data from the CNLSY using univariate ACE models and bivariate Cholesky decomposition models. Study 2 used simulation modeling to provide a summative evaluation of the psychosocial effects of spanking with regard to genetic and nonshared environmental covariation.

Results: Study 1 replicated previous work showing that associations between spanking and outcomes of delinquency, depression, and alcohol use were explained by moderate-to-large degrees of genetic covariation and small-to-moderate degrees of nonshared environmental covariation. Simulation estimates from Study 2 suggest that genetic covariation accounts for a substantial amount of the phenotypic effect between spanking and psychosocial outcomes (≈60–80%), with the remainder attributable to nonshared environmental covariation (≈0–40%).

Conclusions: Results of the current research indicate that continued work on the effects of spanking is best served by behavior genetic research on a broader range of outcomes than what is currently available.

Many atheists think of themselves as intellectually gifted individuals, guiding humanity on the path of reason. Scientific data shows otherwise.

Atheism is not as rare or as rational as you think. Will Gervais. Big Think, Apr 15 2022. https://bigthink.com/the-well/atheism-rare-rational

You are a member of a very peculiar species. Of all our quirks, the human religious impulse may be our most distinctive one. We build skyscrapers? Big deal, bowerbirds construct ornate decorative nests and they have brains the size of almonds. We live in really big societies? Great, so do ants, whose brains are even tinier. We can do math problems? Wonderful, but so can slime molds, and they don’t even have brains!

Religion: distinctively human 

Where humans often appear unique in some regard, a closer look usually shows us to be a mere outlier, rather than a genuine exception. This does not seem to be the case for religion. Most people who have ever lived believe in some sort of god; they are as certain of their gods as of their breath. But not a single organism outside our immediate evolutionary lineage has ever contemplated the existence of a god. Think about that for a moment: as far as we know, every single sentient being in the universe that has ever believed in a god is a member of our odd little species, and almost every member of our species has believed in a god. To scientists interested in evolution and human nature, religion is a puzzle that screams to be solved.

The record percentage of workers who are quitting their jobs, known as the “Great Resignation,” is not a shift in worker attitudes due to the pandemic: Waves of job quits have occurred during all fast recoveries in the postwar period

“Great Resignations” Are Common During Fast Recoveries. Bart Hobijn. Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco's Economic Letters 2022-08, Apr 2022. https://www.frbsf.org/economic-research/publications/economic-letter/2022/april/great-resignations-are-common-during-fast-recoveries/

The record percentage of workers who are quitting their jobs, known as the “Great Resignation,” is not a shift in worker attitudes in the wake of the pandemic. Evidence on which workers are quitting suggests that it reflects the strong rebound of the demand for younger and less-educated workers. Historical data on quits in manufacturing suggest that the current wave is not unusual. Waves of job quits have occurred during all fast recoveries in the postwar period.

Cannot confirm that always interactions between testosterone and cortisol are negative; sometimes there is a a positive feedback loop whereby elevated testosterone prompts increases in sexual desire and behavior, and cortisol helps in this

Associations Between Sexual Desire and Within-Individual Testosterone and Cortisol in Men and Women. Kevin A Rosenfield, Heather Self, Talia Shirazi, Rodrigo Cardenes, Justin Carré, Triana Ortiz, Khytam Dawood & David A. Puts. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, Apr 18 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40750-022-00184-w

Abstract

Objective: The dual-hormone hypothesis (DHH) posits that some effects of testosterone on human behavior and psychology related to status-seeking are moderated by cortisol, such that they are stronger when cortisol levels are low. In support of the DHH, studies have found that cortisol negatively moderated the relationship between testosterone and such traits as status-seeking and interest in uncommitted sex. Others indicate a positive moderating influence of cortisol in some cases. Here, we test whether two psychosexual indices—sexual desire and sociosexuality—meet the expectations of the DHH in a large sample of men and women.

Method: 646 women and 185 men attended lab sessions during which they provided saliva samples for hormonal analysis and responded to the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory-Revised and the Sexual Desire Inventory (180 women and 43 men returned for a second session approximately two months later). We quantified salivary hormone concentrations using ELISA and assessed within- and between-participant effects of hormones on psychosexual measures with mixed-effects models.

Results: We observed a positive interaction between within-subjects cortisol and testosterone in models of sexual desire in both men and women. For women, these effects emerged in models of general sexual desire and in models of the dyadic desire subscale and were robust to many analytical configurations. For men, the effects were limited to models of solitary desire, but were also robust to alternative analyses. We present data to quantify our risks of both type I and type II error.

Conclusions: Some of our results contrast with usual dual-hormone hypothesis predictions of negative interactions between testosterone and cortisol. We suggest several potential explanations for these results, including a positive feedback loop whereby elevated testosterone prompts increases in sexual desire and behavior, necessitating cortisol-induced mobilization of energy stores.

Letters To A Spanish Youngster CCLXVI

Letters To A Spanish Youngster CCLXVI

[...]

Your Honor who even when absent gives some light to us Your admirers and followers,/Su Señoría que incluso cuando ausente da alguna luz a nosotros Sus admiradores y seguidores,

Reading some of ibn Gabirol's poems*, special person of my heart, the person of beautiful forms, is very inspiring:/Leer algunos de los poemas de ibn Gabirol, persona especial de mi corazón, la persona de bellas formas, es muy inspirador:

[Begging friends for pardon for not paying a visit/Disculpas a unos amigos por no ir a visitarlos]

                                                      ["Cual fuego es el anhelo      que tienes en la entraña".

                                                       Os he puesto mi llanto por respuesta,

                                                       si bien remedio alguno      no obtengo de mis lágrimas.

                                                       Pues ¿cómo llegaré,      amados, a vosotros

                                                       si entre nuestros amores      colinas se levantan

                                                       y no hay entre nosotros sino epístolas?]

[Waiting for truth to come to light/Esperando que la verdad salga a la luz]

                                                      [Con lágrimas copiosas

                                                       y el rostro enrojecido de vergüenza

                                                       por ti, te han contestado;      y estaban sus miradas

                                                       sombrías como nubes      repletas de rocío

                                                       que fueran a dejarlo      llover [...]:

                                                       —Seguimos manteniendo      el pacto del amor;

                                                       romper los juramentos no podemos.]

[Praising a poet/Alabanza a un poeta]

                                                      [[frente a los trabajos de los rivales]

                                                       [tus obras] hasta la postrera

                                                       generación han sido cincelad[a]s

                                                       con un punzón de hierro      y en mármol esculpid[a]s.]

The original were verses, not works generally./El original eran versos, no obras en general.

[Illness/La enfermedad]

                                                      [Piedad sobre piedad      añade cuando [me] juzg[ues]                                                       

                                                       [...]

                                                       [...] parecen parturientas

                                                       a quienes han asido      la angustia y el dolor.

                                                       [...]

                                                       Mas hoy han vacilado,      hermano, mis rodillas;

                                                       su puesto y su temblor      de ti se han ocultado.]

[The palace and the garden/El palacio y el jardín]

[Come, my friend, and friend to the spheres, [Ven, amigo, y amigo de las esferas,

come, we’ll rest by fields as we go—              ven conmigo a dormir en las aldeas, que

for winter has passed, and again we hear      ya pasó el invierno y se oyen en nuestra tierra

the call of swifts and doves.                          el clamor de zorzales y de tórtolas.

We’ll lie in the shadow of the apple & palm,   Dejemos que a la sombra del granado

pomegranate trees and citrus.                      de palmas, de manzanos y naranjos

                                                                  el sueño nos invada.

We’ll walk in the shade of the grapevine’s      Vaguemos a la sombra de las parras

                                                       [trellis,

longing for sight of illustrious faces                dejándonos vencer por el deseo

high on the hill over town in the palace           de contemplar imágenes radiantes

with massive foundations and towering walls. en un palacio erguido      sobre sus derredores.

[...]                                                              [...]

[...] and at dusk it recalls                               En los atardeceres su imagen es de cielo,

the panoplied sky with its stars in array:         de noche sus estrellas      en fila se alinean;

the hearts of all who enter are raised,             se encuentra bien en ella      el alma de los

the sorrows of the bitter and poor fade away.  míseros y de los afligidos y

                                                                    los olvidan los amargos y exangües sus pesares.

My troubles vanished when it came into view, La he visto y mis fatigas he olvidado;

and my heart in its straits took comfort—        de angustias consolose mi alma, y de alegría

was nearly lifted away with joy,                       mi cuerpo como en alas de azores, casi vuela.

as though on the wings of an eagle.

[...]                                                               [...]

we lure others’ hearts with their spell—           las almas embrujamos,

[...]                                                               [...]

a priceless soul, a gem to the sky,                 Diadema de los cielos, sensible, generoso;

he fulfills his pledges without any vows.]         con las promesas cumple como si fueran votos.]

[On an ill friend/Sobre un amigo enfermo]

                                                                  [En verdad que no puede un hermano

                                                                   redimir a su hermano; [...]

                                                                   [...]

                                                                   Si pudiera librarse el humano,

                                                                   tu rescate en la muerte estaría,

                                                                   ¡oh, señor de mi alma!, en mi espíritu.

                                                                   Pero ruego de Dios el remedio;

                                                                   que la paz sea contigo y que halles

                                                                   una bizma para tu dolencia.]

[In praise of a friend/Alabando a un amigo]

                                                                 [Angustia del deseo      y amores juveniles

                                                                 dejáronme sin alma entre las gentes.

                                                                 A causa de las puertas      de amores clausuradas

                                                                 quedáronse mis ojos      abiertos del insomnio,

                                                                 y puso Dios sus astros a mi lado

                                                                 cual si pastor yo fuera      y aquéllos los rebaños.

                                                                 Como al probado Abraham      a mí me puso a prueba,

                                                                 diciéndome: "Alza y cuenta      lo que es innumerable".

                                                                 El ver estas congojas y otras tales

                                                                 me arrastra malamente,      amigo, hacia la tumba;

                                                                 las ansias me han cercado,      me tienen oprimido

                                                                 y me han acrisolado      en horno siete veces.

                                                                 [...]

                                                                 ¿Y que diré al respecto      del ensalzado? ¿Y cómo

                                                                 hablar, si mis ideas      menguadas han quedado?]

Suffering much for the distance, the many weeks without Your light, weeping gently when thinking of Your voice and Your   ҉  eyes  ҉  , Yours faithfully/Sufriendo mucho en la distancia, las muchas semanas sin Su luz, llorando suavemente cuando pienso en Su voz y Sus   ҉  ojos  ҉  ,

                 a. r. ante Su Señoría

--

Notes

*  Adapted from Selected Poems of Solomon ibn Gabirol, translated by Peter Cole (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2001), & the Spanish version from Selomó ibn Gabirol—Poesía secular, by Elena Romero (Madrid: Alfaguara, 1978)

Passage of rent control in St. Paul, Minnesota in 2021: To the extent that rent control is intended to transfer wealth from high-income to low-income households, the realized impact of the law was the opposite of its intention

Ahern, Kenneth Robinson and Giacoletti, Marco, Robbing Peter to Pay Paul? The Redistribution of Wealth Caused by Rent Control (March 18, 2022). SSRN: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4061315

Abstract: We use the price effects caused by the passage of rent control in St. Paul, Minnesota in 2021, to study the transfer of wealth across income groups. First, we find that rent control caused property values to fall by 6-7%, for an aggregate loss of $1.6 billion. Both owner-occupied and rental properties lost value, but the losses were larger for rental properties, and in neighborhoods with a higher concentration of rentals. Second, leveraging administrative parcel-level data, we find that the tenants who gained the most from rent control had higher incomes and were more likely to be white, while the owners who lost the most had lower incomes and were more likely to be minorities. For properties with high-income owners and low-income tenants, the transfer of wealth was close to zero. Thus, to the extent that rent control is intended to transfer wealth from high-income to low-income households, the realized impact of the law was the opposite of its intention.

Keywords: Rent control, real estate valuation, wealth transfers

JEL Classification: R31. R38, G51

16,699 active duty service members in U.S. military: The Air Force had the lowest rates of nearly all substance use and mental health outcomes; many outcomes were 2-3 times higher among Army, Marine Corps & Navy, after adjustment

Military service branch differences in alcohol use, tobacco use, prescription drug misuse, and mental health conditions. Megan S. Schuler, Eunice C. Wong, Rajeev Ramchand. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, April 15 2022, 109461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109461

Highlights

• Study population include 16,699 active duty service members in U.S. military

• We test for differences across service branch in substance use and mental health outcomes

• The Air Force had the lowest rates of nearly all substance use and mental health outcomes

• Many outcomes were 2-3 times higher among Army, Marine Corps and Navy, after adjustment

• Differences are not fully explained by branch differences in deployment/combat experiences

Introduction: Rates of substance use and mental health conditions vary across military service branches, yet branches also differ notably in terms of demographics and deployment experiences. This study examines whether branch differences in substance use and mental health outcomes persist after adjustment for a comprehensive set of demographic and deployment-related factors.

Methods: Data on 16,699 Armed Forces Active Duty service members were from the 2015 Department of Defense Health Related Behaviors Survey. Service branch-specific prevalences were estimated for self-reports of heavy episodic drinking (HED), possible alcohol use disorder (AUD), current smoking, e-cigarette use, smokeless tobacco use, prescription drug misuse, probable post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), probable depression, and probable anxiety. Using logistic regression, we assessed whether branch differences persisted after adjusting for an extensive array of demographic factors (among full sample) and deployment/combat factors (among ever-deployed subgroup).

Results: HED, AUD, smoking, e-cigarette use, smokeless tobacco use, depression, and anxiety were highest in the Marine Corps; prescription drug misuse and PTSD were highest in the Army. HED, AUD, smoking, smokeless tobacco use, PTSD, depression, and anxiety were lowest in the Air Force; e-cigarette use and prescription drug misuse were lowest in the Coast Guard. Demographics and deployment/combat experiences differed across branches. After adjustment, service members in the Army, Marine Corps and Navy exhibited nearly 2-3 times the odds of multiple mental health conditions and substance use behaviors relative to the Air Force.

Conclusion: Service branch differences were not fully explained by variation in demographics and deployment/combat experiences.

Keywords: militaryactive dutyalcoholtobaccoprescription drug misuseanxietydepressionpost-traumatic stress disorder

Analyses from >100 species of birds & mammals revealed robust positive correlations between yawn duration and brain mass and overall & cortical/pallium neuron totals; the observation of yawning in conspecifics selectively enhances vigilance

The causes and consequences of yawning in animal groups. Andrew C.Gallup. Animal Behaviour, Volume 187, May 2022, Pages 209-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.03.011 

Highlights

• Yawning is a highly conserved neurophysiological adaptation among vertebrates.

• The detection of yawning appears to be biologically important in social species.

• The observation of yawning in conspecifics selectively enhances vigilance.

• Yawn contagion appears to function in promoting motor synchrony in groups.

Yawning is a stereotyped action pattern that is prevalent across vertebrates. While there is growing consensus on the physiological functions of spontaneous yawning in neurovascular circulation and brain cooling, far less is known about how the act of yawning alters the cognition and behaviour of observers. By bridging and synthesizing a wide range of literature, this review attempts to provide a unifying framework for understanding the evolution and elaboration of derived features of yawning in social vertebrates. Recent studies in animal behaviour, psychology and neuroscience now provide evidence that yawns serve as a cue that improves the vigilance of observers, and that contagious yawning functions to synchronize and/or coordinate group activity patterns. These social responses to yawning align with research on the physiological significance of this behaviour, as well as the ubiquitous temporal and contextual variation in yawn frequency across mammals and birds. In addition, these changes in mental processing and behaviour resulting from the detection of yawning in others are consistent with variability in the expression of yawn contagion based on affinity and social status in primates. Topics for further research in these areas are discussed.

Keywords: arousalcircadian rhythmscollective behaviourmotor synchronystate changestressthermoregulationvigilance

Summary and future directions

Yawning is a neurophysiological adaptation that is omnipresent across vertebrates (Massen et al., 2021), and the detection of this action pattern in others appears to be biologically important among social species (Tsurumi et al., 2019). Moreover, recent studies indicate that yawning serves as a cue that enhances individual vigilance and promotes motor synchrony through contagion (see Fig. 1 for a graphic illustration of these processes). However, additional research is needed to replicate and further examine the nature of these effects, as well as investigate potential comparative differences in these responses based by on ecological factors and evolutionary history. In particular, future studies could examine how exposure to yawns alters the detection of threatening stimuli across different species, as well as how experimentally induced yawn contagion influences different patterns of motor synchrony and group coordination among human and nonhuman animals in the laboratory. In addition, naturalistic studies could investigate how the detection of yawning alters scanning rates and vigilance monitoring in free-moving groups, as well as how yawning and other patterns of behavioural contagion influence collective movement across different species. For example, among many species, yawning and stretching tend to co-occur, and both behaviours have been found to be contagious in budgerigars (Gallup et al., 2017; Miller, Gallup, Vogel, Vicario, et al., 2012). Since yawn and stretch contagion could have similar functions among animal groups in initiating collective action, future research could assess whether behavioural contagion in general is a key feature in initiating synchrony.

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Figure 1

The current evidence suggests that yawning serves as a cue rather than as a signal, but future studies could further examine whether spontaneous yawns evolved specifically to communicate internal states and/or alter the behaviour of observers in some species. For example, studies could investigate whether yawning occurs more readily in the presence of others and in contexts in which synchrony and/or vigilance would be most advantageous to the group. In addition, researchers could examine patterns in the variability of yawn expression. A recent study on macaques (Macaca tonkeana and M. fuscata) suggests differences in the morphology and duration of yawning are predictive of the contexts in which this behaviour arises (Zannella et al., 2021), so follow-up studies could also assess how different types of yawns differentially impact the subsequent vigilance behaviour and synchronization of observers. Similarly, researchers could assess differences in yawn-induced changes in behaviour based on the presence or absence of auditory cues. Vocal components to yawning appear to be common among humans and nonprimates (e.g. Massen et al., 2015; Palagi et al., 2009), yet seem unnecessary for the physiological function(s) of this action pattern. Thus, studies could investigate the factors that contribute to variation in vocal yawning and how the social outcomes of yawning vary based on visual and/or auditory detection.

Further examination of yawning in animals could provide important insights into the social role of this behaviour and its function in altering group dynamics, which could in turn offer applications for improving performance in surveillance settings and organized group activities in our own species. Based on what is already known about the social nature of yawning, it appears time to systemically examine some of the more overt social features of this behaviour in humans. This includes the stigmatization of yawning in some cultures (Schiller, 2002), which leads to the active concealment (Schino & Aureli, 1989) and/or inhibition of yawning when in the presence of others (Gallup, Church, Miller, et al., 2016; Gallup et al., 2019). For example, further research is needed to fully understand and disentangle the potential physiologic and social causes and consequences of inhibiting spontaneous and contagious yawning in groups. In line with the comparative perspective highlighted throughout this review, the bridging of both human and nonhuman animal research will provide the most comprehensive understanding of this evolutionarily conserved behaviour.

Results suggested that people were less ready to commit to a romantic relationship to the extent that they perceived they had many partners available to them

Playing the field or locking down a partner?: Perceptions of available romantic partners and commitment readiness. Ashlyn Brady et al. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 101, July 2022, 104334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104334

Abstract: People often consider how ready they feel for a committed romantic relationship before initiating one. Although research has only begun to identify the antecedents of commitment readiness, several theoretical perspectives suggest that it should be shaped by the perceived frequency of available partners. We conducted five studies (one correlational, four experimental) that tested this idea among single people. A Pilot Study assessed participants' perceptions of available romantic partners and their commitment readiness. In the subsequent four experiments, participants read articles (Studies 1a and 1b) or created dating profiles and were presented with false feedback (Studies 2 and 3) that influenced perceptions of available partners and reported their commitment readiness. Results suggested that people were less ready to commit to a romantic relationship to the extent that they perceived they had many partners available to them. These results further understanding of factors that promote the decision to initiate a committed relationship.

Keywords: Commitment readinessRelationship initiationRomantic relationshipsAvailable partnersCommitment

Women enjoyed higher levels of purpose in life; & were more likely to have altruistic behaviors and attitudes, which in turn facilitated a stronger purpose in life

From 2018... Gender Differences in Purpose in Life: The Mediation Effect of Altruism. Juan Xi et al. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Jun 7, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167818777658

Abstract: A strong meaning or purpose in life, as a key indicator for psychological well-being, has been found to enhance health and longevity in a large amount of empirical research. In this study, we focus on gender differences in purpose in life. Using a large nationally representative sample, we found that women enjoyed higher levels of purpose in life. We further examined the role of altruism in accounting for much of the gender differences in life purpose. Women were more likely to have altruistic behaviors and attitudes, which in turn facilitated a stronger purpose in life. Our study suggests that men could plausibly attain a similar level of purpose in life if social norms encouraged men to nurture the growth of others through altruistic acts to the same extent as women.

Keywords: purpose in life, altruism, gender

The widespread public scepticism about Darwinism in most developed countries can be understood in terms of the counter-intuitive nature of the theory – we experience species as fixed and distinct in kind, not changing and only quantitatively different – and lack of education about the fundamental concepts

Darwinian explanations and socio-cultural processes: A synthesis. Daniel Nettle. Before 2008? https://doc4pdf.com/761219-darwinian-explanations-and-sociocultural-processes-a-synthesis-daniel-nettle.html

1. The problem

Darwin’s theory of evolution, in particular as it has emerged from the synthesis with Mendelian genetics in the 1930s and the clarification of the levels of selection issue in the 1960s, is the most important – ultimately, the only – deep-level theory in the life sciences. It provides a unification of the various disciplines of biology around a common set of explanatory principles which are demonstrably correct. As the great Theodosius Dobzhansky put it, ‘Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution’ (Dobzhansky 1973).  The various forms of intellectual critique of Darwinian theory in general - rather than particular local predictions derived from it - collapse under close scrutiny, and their persistence can be attributed to ideological and historical antipathies rather than any scientific substance (see Dennett 1995, Kitcher 2007, for some discussion, and Wilson 2007 for a readable introduction to modern Darwinism). The widespread public scepticism about Darwinism in most developed countries (Miller, Scot & Okamoto 2006) can likewise be understood in terms of the counter-intuitive nature of the theory – we experience species as fixed and distinct in kind, not changing and only quantitatively different – and lack of education about the fundamental concepts, rather than any flaws in the theoretical edifice. The social and human sciences provide an interesting contrast with the rest of the life sciences. For one thing, they lack a unifying theory, and exist as a more or less untranslatable set of local principles used within one discipline or one part of a discipline (Hermann-Pillath 1994, Wilson 1998, Barkow 2006). It is quite common for social science textbooks to present a number of meta-theoretical approaches, usually associated with particular influential individuals, without providing any criteria for adjudicating between them, leading to the impression that paradigmatic issues are a matter of taste rather than truth. Under these conditions, there is a continual splitting of sub-disciplines and problematizing of approaches, along with frequent statements that this or that field is in crisis, and the human sciences languish whilst the biological sciences, bold and theoretically self-confident, occupy ever more of the pages of influential journals. 

Higher intelligence is robustly related to greater tolerance of disliked groups

Lasker, Jordan, and Jon McNaughtan. 2022. “Assessing the Robustness of the Relationship Between Tolerance and Intelligence.” PsyArXiv. April 14. doi:10.31234/osf.io/dpx74

Abstract

Introduction: Individual differences in intelligence have been repeatedly found to be positively related to tolerance towards, and support for, the rights of groups different from one’s own. These findings hold true even when considering groups individuals dislike. This relationship has been explained in terms of both direct effects – whereby more intelligent people form more cognitive and less visceral opinions about other groups – and indirect ones, where the relationship represents the effects of phenomena like education or urban living, that have also been argued to give rise to higher intelligence and greater tolerance for others.

Methods: To assess the robustness of this association to a plethora of common alternative explanations, we conducted a Specification Curve Analysis with the data from the U.S.-based General Social Survey (Nspecification max >15000). This method fits all possible configurations of a model that are possible with a set of variables, making it uniquely well-suited for robustness testing. 

Results: We found that the relationship was almost wholly robust to many alternative explanations, and in those cases where the relationship became null, it was likely the result of small sample sizes for a given specification.

Conclusion: Intelligence and tolerance are strongly and consistently related.

Fake Independents, who claimed independence but who voted straight ticket, in most cases preferred Democrats, acted very much like Liberals in stated values and concerns, had aversion to being bound to a party

This party stinks: Self-definitions and justifications of the politically unaffiliated. Daniel M. Rempala & Bradley M. Okdie. Current Psychology, Apr 13 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-022-03097-9

Abstract: Politically unaffiliated, or “independent,” voters are accorded great importance in electoral contexts because of their presumed persuadability. However, this category remains poorly defined. Using online survey data collected after the 2018 U.S. midterm elections (Study 1) and 2020 U.S. general election (Study 2), we separate political independents into distinct subcategories based on language used to describe their political beliefs and behavior, and analyze their motivations using open-ended self-justifications, the Moral Foundations Questionnaire, and political engagement measures. We identified three distinct groups of independents. Pure Independents self-identified as “independent” and lingered between the liberal and conservative poles on virtually all political engagement and moral foundations measures. Default Independents, unaffiliated participants who did not self-identify as “independent” and were low on moral foundations and political engagement measures. Fake Independents, unaffiliated participants who voted straight-ticket, provided results similar to Liberals and viewed the Democratic Party as the only voting option available. These data show the diversity of those who claim political independence and offer insights into conceptualizing political independence.

Germany: Women rate the reputation of housewives considerably worse than men do

Das Ansehen von Hausfrauen in Deutschland – Eine quantitativ-empirische Analyse differenzieller Wahrnehmungen / The Prestige of Housewives in Germany—A Quantitative–Empirical Analysis of Differential Perceptions. Katrin Stache, Christian Ebner & Daniela Rohrbach-Schmidt. KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Apr 12 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11577-022-00819-6

Abstract: The employment rate of women has increased markedly over the past decades, both internationally and in Germany, whereas the classic male breadwinner model is eroding. Against this background, using current survey data, the aim of this study is to examine the social prestige of the shrinking group of housewives whose main activity is domestic and family work. The analyses address, on the one hand, the question of how high their reputation is generally rated by the population in Germany and, on the other hand, whether the perceptions differ systematically by raters’ sociodemographic characteristics. The empirical findings show that the reputation of housewives in Germany is generally rated higher than that of the unemployed and of those in helper jobs but lower than for those in professional jobs at the skilled level. Moreover, the assessments of housewives’ prestige vary significantly according to the social group (birth cohort, level of education, labor force participation, gender) to which the respondents belong. Further analyses of interaction effects also reveal a differentiated interaction of the gender variable with the other structural group characteristics. The paper concludes with a detailed discussion of the results and an outlook on future research.

We found that change in self-reported sexual orientation was not reflected in genital arousal, providing tentative support for the notion that self-reports may overestimate change in sexual orientation

Stability and Change in Sexual Orientation and Genital Arousal over Time. Dragos C. Gruia, Luke Holmes, Jaime Raines, Erlend Slettevold, Tuesday M. Watts-Overall & Gerulf Rieger. The Journal of Sex Research, Apr 12 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2022.2060927

Abstract: Longitudinal work suggests that sexual orientation can change over time in men and women. These studies, however, may be susceptible to the bias of self-report. The current study therefore examined self-reported sexual orientation in addition to an objective correlate: genital arousal to erotic videos showing males or females. For 52 men (19 heterosexual, 19 bisexual, 14 homosexual) and 67 women (31 heterosexual, 18 bisexual, 18 homosexual), these measures were taken twice, with approximately 1 year between sessions. For self-reported sexual orientation, women reported lower relative stability (weaker correlation) than men over time, even though women did not change more overall (no stronger mean difference) than men between sessions. Bisexual individuals reported lower relative stability and more mean change than heterosexual and homosexual individuals. For genital arousal, across all groups, response patterns were correlated over time to a similar extent and showed little difference between sessions. Moreover, change in self-reported sexual orientation did not correspond with the change in genital arousal, regardless of sex. Perhaps self-reports overestimate changes in sexual orientation, since these changes were not reflected in physiological sexual response.

Discussion

The present study examined: (a) the correlation of self-reported sexual orientation and arousal over time, (b) the mean change in orientation and arousal over time, and (c) the link between change in self-reported sexual orientation and change in sexual arousal. Before addressing any effects of time, it is worth examining the results by session. In general, patterns of sexual arousal in the present study were in agreement with those previously reported (Raines et al., 2021; Rosenthal et al., 2011). That is, heterosexual and homosexual men showed a strong preference for their preferred sex, while bisexual men, as a group, showed arousal to both sexes. Across sexual orientations, women showed arousal both to the same sex and other sex; however, homosexual women showed a slight tendency in arousal toward the same sex. One unexpected result was found in Session 1, where bisexual women showed somewhat less bisexual arousal than heterosexual women, if not homosexual women. It is unclear why this pattern occurred, and it was no longer the case in Session 2 (Figure 3).

With respect to relative stability (correlation) of self-reported sexual orientation over time, our results were similar to those found in a previous longitudinal study (Savin-Williams et al., 2012): (1) sexual orientation was relatively stable, overall, as suggested by the correspondence between sessions, (2) women, in general, showed lower relative stability than men, and (3) bisexuals, irrespective of sex, reported lower relative stability than other sexual orientations. For sexual arousal we also found overall relative stability, but it was weaker than for sexual orientation. Moreover, a sex difference in relative stability was only apparent in one of the two measures of arousal, and no significant differences in relative stability were found between bisexuals and monosexuals.

With respect to change (mean difference), for self-reported sexual orientation, our results were somewhat in agreement with previous work, but not entirely so (Mock & Eibach, 2012; Ott et al., 2011; Savin-Williams et al., 2012): (1) even though we did not find directional change over time, on average, there was non-directional change in participants’ sexual orientations, (2) even though women did not exhibit more non-directional change than men, the difference was in the predicted direction, and (3) bisexual individuals changed non-directionally more than other sexual orientations. Regarding mean change in sexual arousal, our results only partially mirrored findings for sexual orientation: (1) non-directional mean change in sexual arousal occurred, on average, but (2) women did not change more than men, and (3) bisexual individuals did not change more than monosexuals. In sum, 5 out of 6 of our predictions related to relative stability and to change were confirmed for self-reported sexual orientation, whereas only 2 out of 6 were fully confirmed across measures of genital arousal.

Taken together, the current data were able to largely replicate previous findings with respect to self-reported sexual orientation, but this was not reflected in sexual arousal. There are several ways in which we can interpret the lack of change in arousal: One interpretation is that the assessment of physiological sexual arousal is subject to more measurement error than self-reports, which could weaken any true patterns in arousal (i.e., correlation, mean change). An alternative interpretation is that longitudinal patterns observed in self-reports provide an over-estimation of the actual change in self-reported sexual orientation. This is not to say that change in sexual orientation does not exist, but rather that change may be rarer than suggested by self-report. Finally, it may be that change in self-reported sexual orientation truly happens subjectively but is not reflected by any corresponding change in physiological responses. Limited support for this assumption comes from one of our null findings, which indicated that change in self-reported sexual orientation was unrelated to change in sexual arousal.

Other limitations of this work need to be considered. It may be that with our sample, the proportion of individuals who exhibited a change in sexual arousal (or orientation) is simply too small to detect any reliable patterns. For instance, we can see in Figures 3a and 3b that bisexual men responded more to their less-arousing sex at the second visit, even though this difference between sessions was not statistically significant. Our lab was forced to close during the COVID-19 pandemic, which meant we were unable to bring back as many participants as originally planned. Despite this limitation, we believe the current findings are informative and may be used as a basis for future longitudinal studies of sexual arousal, which could employ larger participant cohorts.

In addition, due to the intrusive nature of the procedure, which is unavoidable for research on genital arousal, our study may have suffered from self-selection bias, and we simply do not know how patterns would look in those who do not participate. Furthermore, our study does not inform how patterns may change over longer periods, over and above 1 year, and future research could investigate this.

Another worthwhile avenue for future research may be to include pupillary responses to sexually explicit stimuli as an alternative measure of sexual arousal (Attard-Johnson et al., 2021). Even though previous work suggests that genital arousal and pupil dilation tend to show comparable findings (Rieger et al., 2015), the latter produces more noise and smaller effects, on average, and therefore require more participants. Still, including both genital arousal and pupil dilation would be ideal in future longitudinal studies of sexual arousal.

Research could also examine relative stability and change in both self-reported sexual orientation and sexual arousal during specific developmental periods (e.g., before, during, and after puberty), if this were ethically justifiable. Further, one may examine the precise reasons why some individuals exhibit change in their self-reported sexual orientation or sexual arousal. For instance, fear of rejection, discrimination, and cultural norms are a few of the factors that might influence change in self-reported sexual orientation, while exposure to new sexual experiences might contribute to changes in sexual arousal.

Conclusion

In this study, we followed up men and women of varying sexual orientations over time, examining their self-reported sexual orientation and objectively assessing their genital arousal to sexually explicit stimuli. We found that, on average, change in self-reported sexual orientation was more likely to be reported than change in genital arousal in both men and women, and that among all sexual orientations, bisexual individuals were the most likely to report any change. Furthermore, we found that change in self-reported sexual orientation was not reflected in genital arousal, providing tentative support for the notion that self-reports may overestimate change in sexual orientation.

Pakistan’s per capita GDP would have been an average of about $718 per year higher had the country not undertaken the effort to produce a nuclear weapon = per capita GDP being 27.8 percent lower over the 25-year weapons-development period

The Economic Cost of a Nuclear Weapon: A Synthetic Control Approach. Anthony Mayberry. SSRN Apr 6 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4065001

Abstract: This study estimates the economic effects of nuclear weapons development efforts in Pakistan using synthetic control group methods. Pakistan started its nuclear weapons program in 1972 and conducted its first test in 1998. This paper focuses on the growth impacts during the 1973 to 1997 period, before Pakistan established itself as a nuclear power. I create a synthetic control group for Pakistan using Per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from the 1950 to 1972. The impact of the nuclear weapons development program is measured as a treatment dummy for the years 1973-1997 in a Difference-in-Difference model. I find that Pakistan’s per capita GDP would have been an average of about $718 per year higher had the country not undertaken the effort to produce a nuclear weapon. This equates to per capita GDP being 27.8 percent lower on average over the 25-year weapons-development period. Results are robust to several alternative specifications, including country exclusion, sparse synthetic controls, non-outcome characteristics as predictors of GDP, and in-space placebo experiments of differing specifications.

Keywords: Sanctions, Nuclear Weapons, Synthetic Control, Economic Growth

JEL Classification: F5, O4, F51

Too hunky to help? Boys in the socially self-confident profile had significantly higher mean levels of prosocial behavior beliefs toward other boys compared to boys in the socially precarious profile

Too hunky to help: A person-centered approach to masculinity and prosocial behavior beliefs among adolescent boys. Matthew G. Nielson, Diana L. Jenkins, Ashley M. Fraser. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, April 3, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075221084697

Abstract: Boys’ beliefs about prosocial behavior toward other boys may be negatively affected by masculine norm adherence, and there is evidence that early adolescence is a time when boys feel heightened levels of pressure from multiple sources (e.g., friends, family, and self) to adhere to masculine norms like emotional restriction (e.g., appearing stoic and uncaring). However, the relation between boys’ masculinity and their prosocial behavior beliefs is likely further affected by boys’ social competency. Generally, boys’ social competency is positively associated with prosocial behavior, but this is not the case for “tough” boys (boys who adhere to many traditionally masculine norms). We expected that analyzing the relation between early adolescent boys’ pressure to adhere to masculine norms and boys’ unique social profiles (created using adherence to masculine norms and aspects of social competency) would further illuminate boys’ patterns of prosocial behavior beliefs toward other boys. A latent profile analysis estimated profiles of masculinity and social competence among 260 early adolescent boys (59% White, Mage = 11.45 years old, Rangeage = 10–12) in the southwestern U.S. Three profiles emerged which we labeled socially precarious (50%), socially self-confident (41%), and socially avoidant (9%). R3Step and BCH procedures indicated that higher levels of felt pressure from all three sources resulted in a significantly higher likelihood of being in the socially precarious profile compared to the socially self-confident profile and that boys in the socially self-confident profile had significantly higher mean levels of prosocial behavior beliefs toward other boys (M = 3.22) compared to boys in the socially precarious profile (M = 3.01). Overall, this study encourages the socialization of social competency while simultaneously discouraging the perpetuation of certain masculine norms among adolescent boys.

Keywords: Early adolescence, gender identity, latent profile analysis, parents, peers, prosocial