Lesbian cis women feminists express greater levels of negativity toward trans women than other cis women (heterosexual, bisexual, pansexual, and asexual) do

This is my TERF! Lesbian Feminists and the Stigmatization of Trans Women. Meredith G. F. Worthen. Sexuality & Culture, Apr 26 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12119-022-09970-w

Abstract: Though there is evidence of an historical exclusion of trans women from lesbian feminist separatist spaces supported by radical feminist lesbian anti-trans discourse as well as modern examples of anti-trans perspectives promoted by feminists sometimes described as Trans Exclusionary Radical Feminists, it remains unclear as to if there is a significant association between being a lesbian cis woman feminist and harboring negative attitudes toward trans women or alternatively, if the recent proliferation of exclusionary tactics directed toward trans women’s rights (especially via social media) has been the result of loud voices among a minority who have been successful anti-trans mouthpieces as of late. The current study utilizes survey data (N = 1461 cis women; n = 331 lesbian cis women) to investigate the following research questions: (1) do lesbian cis women feminists express greater levels of negativity toward trans women than other cis women (heterosexual, bisexual, pansexual, and asexual) do? and (2) is there a relationship between feminist identity among lesbian cis women and the stigmatization of trans women (as undeserving of rights, as incapable parents/mothers, as excluded from the military, and as sexually problematic)? Results provide ample evidence of anti-trans perspectives among some lesbian cis women feminists. Overall, the findings provide a starting point to begin to understand how to dismantle the complexities embedded in the relationships between feminism, lesbian identity, and trans negativity and work toward a trans-inclusive future of feminism.

Notes

1 “Womyn-born womyn” is a phrase used to describe those who were born and labeled female as their sex assigned at birth and who have lived their entire lives as females. It emphasizes the significance of sex essentialism and the uniqueness of “female experiences.” In this conceptualization, females who are “womyn-born womyn” endure the oppressions of patriarchy in distinct ways that differ from those are not “womyn-born womyn” (Browne, 2009, p. 548).

2 This is despite the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964 statute that now (as of 2019) explicitly prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender identity.

3 Reforms to the U.K. GRA Gender Recognition Act (GRA) were suggested in 2018 and were denied in 2020. If put into place, the reforms would have made it easier for trans people to self-identify their genders because the requirements to provide a Gender Recognition Certificate and gender dysphoria diagnoses from two different medical professionals would have been dropped.

4 Trans-exclusionary feminists who reinforce sex essentialism incorrectly argue that if trans women were allowed into “women’s only” spaces, they could subject cis women to “unwanted exposure of male genitalia,” “male sexual objectification,” “male sexual violence,” and “male predation” (Burt, 2020, p. 375).

5 Numerous scholars have documented that trans women are at very high risk of sexualized violence (James et al., 2016; Meyer, 2015; Schilt & Westbrook, 2009; Wodda & Panfil, 2014) and sexual objectification (Sevelius, 2013) by hetero cis men.

6 It is unknown how many of these emails were actually received and read by the potential respondents so an exact response rate is also unknown. For example, junk mail filters could have prevented potential respondents from seeing the email invitation, some may have opened the email but decided not to click the link to access the survey, and some may have been deemed ineligible due to identity quotas being met as requested by the author set by SSI (5 of the 8 identity quotas were met).

7 For gender identity, respondents were asked “What best describes your gender?” with responses that were coded as cis men (those that indicated “I identify as a man and my sex assigned at birth was male”), cis women (those that indicated: “I identify as a woman and my sex assigned at birth was female”), trans men (those that indicated “I identify as a man and my sex assigned at birth was female”), trans women (those that indicated “I identify as a woman and my sex assigned at birth was male”), and non-binary (those that indicated “I am gender-nonbinary, gender fluid, or genderqueer”).

8 The survey was held open for 19 days in efforts to meet the quotas set for the LGBT groups. Five quotas were met as follows: gay men (5 days in), bisexual women (7 days in), lesbian women (8 days in), cis men and cis women (16 days in). The quotas for the remaining three groups (bisexual men, trans men, and trans women) were not met. The survey was closed because SSI believed it was not realistic to expect these quotas to fill in a reasonable amount of time.

9 Ancillary analyses (results not shown but available upon request) were conducted using (1) a subsample of only lesbian cis women and hetero cis women (n = 1081) so that lesbian women could be compared to only hetero cis women and (2) a subsample of only lesbian cis women and BPA cis women (n = 726) so that lesbian women could be compared to only BPA cis women. Results demonstrate similar patterns to those presented in Table 3 and there were no new patterns found in any of these analyses thus confirming that the relationships in Table 3 hold true even when the reference groups differ in these ways.

Rolf Degen summarizing... The myth that some people have a real photographic memory has become indispensable in collective consciousness

Myths of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy: Development and Testing of a Questionnaire for Standardized Assessment. Jungmann S.M. · Witthöft M. Verhaltenstherapie, Apr 2022. https://doi.org/10.1159/000507946

Abstract:

Background: Myths in the sense of scientifically untenable statements are widespread in the field of clinical psychology and psychotherapy and can have considerable consequences (e.g., stigmatization, ineffective/potentially harmful treatments). In German-speaking countries, myths have so far been little investigated, and there is no validated questionnaire specifically for the assessment of myths in clinical psychology/psychotherapy. The aim of the study was to develop a questionnaire on myths in clinical psychology/psychotherapy (FMKPP) and to conduct a first psychometric test on two samples (general population, students). In addition, correlations with personality traits, absorption, and intolerance of uncertainty were examined.

Methods: In a sample of the German general population (n= 286) as well as in college students (n= 368), the factor structure and item characteristics were examined, and correlations with dispositional characteristics were calculated. Results: The FMKPP consists of three factors: “myths about the effectiveness of psychotherapy,” “myths about mental disorders/processes in psychotherapy,” and “myths concerning the functioning of memory.” Reliabilities (McDonald’s ω) were between 0.50 and 0.75. As expected, the FMKPP showed significant positive correlations with absorption and uncertainty intolerance.

Conclusion: The reliability and validity of individual items should be investigated in future studies. The association with intolerance of uncertainty could indicate a function of myths in terms of increasing safety and predictability.

Keywords: MythsFalse assumptionsIntolerance of uncertaintyAbsorption

Discussion

The aim of the present work was to develop a questionnaire specifically for assessing myths in clinical psychology and psychotherapy and to test its factor structure, psychometric quality, as well as correlations with personality traits on two independent samples (general population, psychology students).

According to the principal component analysis, the FMKPP comprises three factors that can be described in terms of content with the subscales “myths about the effectiveness of psychotherapy,” “myths about mental disorders/processes in psychotherapy,” and “myths concerning the functioning of memory.” This structure shows a clear overlap with the differentiation of myths in the American context of psychotherapy discussed in the review article by Lilienfeld et al. [2013], with regard to “myths about effective interventions,” “myths about memory,” and “myths about the meaning of early experiences.” The two samples were mostly the same with respect to the maximum loadings on the respective factors. The subscales correlated weakly to moderately (r = 0.14–0.28, p ≤ 0.007; Table 3). As with previous studies [Swami et al., 2012; Kanning et al., 2013, 2014; Swami et al., 2016], this finding may indicate that there are differences in myth acceptance depending on the subject area. Since the development and testing of the questionnaire were performed on the same sample, it is also possible that these correlations were overestimated and are in the low range.

Out of all 20 misconceptions, the myth “Some people have a real photographic memory” (item 25) was most consistently accepted in both samples (mean = 4.72/4.53, SD = 1.14/1.13). Like a study in the USA [Patihis et al., 2014], which found 87.7% agreement with this misconception about the functioning of memory, the present study showed agreement rates (at least “somewhat agree”) of 89.2% (S1) or 83.7% (S2). The sociodemographic data of the student sample examined here (S2) is most comparable to the sample of Patihis et al. [2014] (students, 75% female, mean = 20 years). A high level of myth acceptance, as well as varying levels depending on the myth, can be explained in different ways, e.g., by the person’s experiences and attitudes, the type of studies or professional activity, or the myth’s popularity and media coverage [Lewandowsky et al., 2012; Lilienfeld et al., 2013; Appel and Schreiner, 2014]. The fact that “myths concerning the functioning of memory” are particularly widespread could be explained by the immediate concern and everyday relevance of memory processes, but also by the constant high media presence and controversy about the connection between memory and psychopathological processes [Crews, 1995; Appel and Schreiner, 2014]. Although misconceptions were found to be persistent [Lilienfeld et al., 2013; Otgaar et al., 2019], the present study found, consistent with previous research, that the mediation of relevant expertise – e.g., for those studying psychology – is associated with significantly lower myth acceptance [Standing and Huber, 2003; Taylor and Kowalski, 2004; Furnham and Hughes, 2014].

The item analysis indicated satisfactory to good psychometric properties. Three items showed low discriminative power in one sample each (S1: item 17; S2: items 6 and 15) (rit < 0.30) [Lienert and Raatz, 1994]. Regarding item 17 (“A very high intelligence quotient raises the risk of mental disorders”), from a scientific point of view there are also isolated divergent findings. In a study with over 10,000 adolescents [Keyes et al., 2017], the presence of a mental disorder showed no correlation or a negative one with IQ (among the disorders were ADHD, substance use disorder, and various anxiety disorders; the exception was a positive correlation with depression). With regard to the psychopathological severity across all disorders, greater severity was associated with lower fluid intelligence [Keyes et al., 2017]. A recent study [Karpinski et al., 2018] found, however, that a very high IQ (above the 98th percentile) is associated with a higher rate of ADHD, autism spectrum disorders, and anxiety and depressive disorders; but interpretation of the result should take into consideration the study’s significant methodological limitations (e.g., self-reported diagnoses), and no direct (causal) connection (“intelligence increases the risk”) has been demonstrated. The fact that item 17 cannot currently be indisputably evaluated scientifically in the form of such a sweeping statement could also explain the low factor loadings and the low discriminative power of the item, which should be checked in further studies and might lead to exclusion of the item.

Item 6 (“Disclosing the diagnosis ... harms the therapeutic alliance”) showed the lowest agreement of all the statements, especially among psychology students, with comparably high variance. Furthermore, the explanation of item 6 might be more heavily corrected and internalized by those studying psychology, due to its practical relevance compared to the other statements. With regard to item 15 (“Patients with a mental disorder, e.g., schizophrenia, are often violent”), it was striking that, contrary to the other items (except item 22), the student sample on average agreed more often than did participants from the general population. In addition, there was an unexpected positive correlation between myth acceptance and the number of semesters of study (r = 0.26, p < 0.001), with a comparatively low average number of semesters overall (mean = 3.6, SD = 2.2), which could indicate that the students had acquired some knowledge of mental disorders, which, however, could also have led to assumptions that are incorrect from a scientific standpoint.

Reliabilities were within the acceptable range for the FMKPP total scale and for the “myths about the effectiveness of psychotherapy” subscale (ω = 0.70–0.75). The subscales “myths about mental disorders/processes in psychotherapy” (ω = 0.61/0.50) and “myths concerning the functioning of memory” (ω = 0.69/0.63) yielded low values and should be checked in further studies. The low reliability of the subscale “myths about mental disorders/processes in psychotherapy” in S2 can be explained, among other things, by the fact that the two ambiguous items (6 and 13) were assigned to the second factor, to the disadvantage of S2 (content fit and higher loadings in S1). This factor also appeared to be less consistent in content, since it covers myths about both characteristics of mental disorders and processes of psychotherapy (therapeutic alliance, side effects).

Regarding correlations with personality traits, our findings indicate a lack of connection with “Openness.” The association with personality traits may also be determined by the specific content of the myths. While Swami et al. [2016] identified a negative relationship between “Openness” and a scientific myth (r= –0.21, p < 0.001), Swami et al. [2012] found no relationship to everyday (psychological) myths. Moreover, the operationalization of the construct “Openness” could also explain the differences between our study’s findings and those of Swami et al. [2016]. While we used the BFI short version, which assesses the imaginative and aesthetic components of Openness, Swami et al. [2016] studied “Openness” with the BFI more comprehensively, including the intellectual curiosity component, which was also used to explain the negative relationship with acceptance of the myth. It should also be further investigated to what extent the content and/or, for example, the form of presentation is important (more detailed description of a scenario [Swami et al., 2016]).

Consistent with the findings of Patihis et al. [2014], this first psychometric test of the FMKPP presents positive correlations between absorption (the disposition to pay more attention to sensory/imaginative experiences) and the total score as well as the subscale “myths concerning the functioning of memory” of the FMKPP (r = 0.18–0.45, p < 0.003). In previous studies, absorption was related, for one thing, to suggestibility [Eisen and Carlson, 1998], which might explain an association with greater myth acceptance in general. On the other hand, people with a higher level of absorption had greater hypnotic responsivity and more frequent reports of childhood abuse [Eisen and Carlson, 1998; Roche and McConkey, 1990]. Both areas are directly related to the factor “myths concerning the functioning of memory” of the FMKPP.

Also as expected, positive correlations were found between the FMKPP and the UIS (total FMKPP: r = 0.20–0.21, p < 0.018), which could indicate that people with higher myth acceptance have a greater need for safety and control over events and the future. Comparison of the subscales showed a differentiated picture. An inability to act associated with intolerance of uncertainty (e.g., “It paralyzes me to have to act,” low self-esteem) was, for example, positively correlated with “myths about mental disorders/processes of psychotherapy,” which could be explained by the overlapping content of the two subscales (self-esteem issues, causes of mental problems). Considering the study design (construction and validation for the same sample in each case), the (already weak) correlations may have been overestimated so that the correlations must be interpreted carefully and should only be regarded as preliminary indications. To be able to derive more reliable statements, including on (different) functions of myths, it will be necessary to conduct further studies with more representative samples and investigation of additional variables (e.g., fearfulness or situational use of myths).

Limitations

This study should be interpreted as a presentation of the development and the first test of the FMKPP. An examination of the factor values and item analysis revealed some, although comparatively few, inconsistent findings between the two samples (maximum loadings, items 6 and 13), low discriminative power of items 6, 15, and 17 (<0.30) [Lienert and Raatz, 1994 ], and ambiguities of content (item 11, item 17 see discussion above). Item 11 (“… important… to vent one’s anger”) showed unambiguous factor values and was therefore assigned to the corresponding factor (“myths concerning the functioning of memory”), but its content is rather removed from the other myths about memory. One association with this factor could be that item 11 also addresses an underlying cause (comparable to traumatic experiences) and how it is dealt with (repression as inadequate) so that the classification was left in this form during the first trial. These limitations in factor structure and item analysis can probably also explain the low reliabilities of the two subscales “myths about mental disorders” and “myths about the functioning of memory” and should be studied in a more representative general population.

The construction and validation of the FMKPP used the same sample (although in parallel on two independent samples). In the development process, for example, there was no step-by-step selection of items, which, among other things, might explain the sometimes low item-scale correlations. This method might also lead to a tendency to overestimate the correlations found (Table 3). In light of the weak correlations with absorption and intolerance of uncertainty, as well as the possibility of alpha error inflation, the results should be interpreted very carefully and as preliminary indications.

The choice of the associated constructs was primarily based on prior English-language work. For future research, it would make sense to conduct a stringent convergent and discriminant validation of the FMKPP (e.g., the subject’s agreement with misconceptions from the field of psychology and other sciences, belief/orientation based on empirical findings).

Regarding the sample, it should also be mentioned that the general population studied here comprised a disproportionately high proportion of participants with an academic degree (46%), as well as participants who had studied psychology in the past or were studying it currently (9%). This can be explained by the method of recruitment (“convenience sample”), which occurred via social media among the friends, acquaintances, and family of psychology students, people who presumably have a comparably high school/academic education.

Research to date suggests that schooling in general [Kanning et al., 2013] and psychological training in particular [Gardner and Dalsing, 1986; Standing and Huber, 2003; Kanning et al., 2013] are associated with lower agreement with misconceptions. Since the sample of the general population studied here showed low variance with regard to education, no reliable statement can be made about the relationship between education and myth acceptance. The FMKPP should therefore be examined in future studies with more representative samples (especially with regard to education). Other studies have also shown that higher IQ scores and a critically reflective mindset are associated with lower myth acceptance [McCutcheon et al., 1992; Bensley et al., 2014; Patihis et al., 2014]. Since IQ scores and education are significantly correlated, the question posed for future research is to what extent both factors contribute to the acceptance or rejection of misconceptions.

The statements used in the FMKPP are excerpted from myths that are often studied in the English-speaking world, as well as the authors’ experiences, which can currently be divided into three areas. Additional misconceptions may be interesting to investigate, which could also result in alternative or additional factors. The FMKPP makes no claim as to the completeness of its list of misconceptions in the field of clinical psychology and psychotherapy; its goal is to comparatively efficiently assess misconceptions in the German-speaking countries that also frequently occur internationally and thus to make possible international comparisons.

For single men, testosterone increased ratings of attractiveness for low attractive female faces; for paired men, it increased ratings of attractiveness for the high attractive

Relatively rapid effects of testosterone on men's ratings of female attractiveness depend on relationship status and the attractiveness of stimulus faces. Shawn N. Geniole et al. Hormones and Behavior, Volume 142, June 2022, 105174, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105174

Highlights

• Effects of testosterone on men’s ratings of female attractiveness

• Testosterone's effects depended on relationship status and attractiveness of the stimulus face.

• For single men, testosterone increased ratings of attractiveness for low attractive female faces.

• For paired men, testosterone increased ratings of attractiveness for high attractive female faces.

Abstract: Attractiveness judgements influence desires to initiate and maintain romantic relationships. Testosterone also predicts relationship initiation and maintenance; such effects may be driven by the hormone's modulation of attractiveness judgements, but no studies have investigated causal (and situation-dependent) effects of the hormone on these judgements. Using a placebo-controlled cross-over design, our preregistered analyses revealed order- and relationship- dependent effects: single heterosexual men judged the women as more appealing when testosterone was administered first (and placebo second), but marginally less appealing when placebo was administered first (and testosterone second). In a more complex model incorporating the women's attractiveness (as rated by an independent set of observers), however, we show that testosterone increases the appeal of women —but this effect depends upon the men's relationship status and the women's attractiveness. In partnered men (n = 53) who tend to derogate attractive alternatives (by rating them as less appealing), testosterone countered this effect, boosting the appeal of these attractive alternatives. In single men (n = 53), conversely, testosterone increased the appeal of low-attractive women. These differential effects highlight the possibility of a newly discovered mechanism whereby testosterone promotes male sexual reproduction through different routes depending on relationship status, promoting partner up- rather than down-grading when partnered and reducing choosiness when single. Further, such effects were relatively rapid [within 85 (±5) minutes], suggesting a potential non-genomic mechanism of action.

Keywords: Facial attractivenessTestosteroneRelationship statusDerogation effect

The female partners tended to underreport the levels of psychopathic traits in their male partner

When the Partner’s Reality Bites: Associations Between Self- and Partner Ratings of Psychopathic Traits, Relationship Quality and Conflict Tactics. Kasia Uzieblo et al. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, April 21, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X221086560

Abstract: The present study examined associations of self- and partner-reported psychopathic traits, as well as the level of agreement between these reports (perceptual accuracy), with relationship quality, and the moderating role of violent and non-violent conflict tactics. Participants were 259 heterosexual couples from the community. Results indicated that, despite moderate convergence between self- and partner-reports, the female partners tended to underreport the levels of psychopathic traits in their male partner. Relationship quality was negatively associated with partner-reported and, albeit to a lesser extent, self-reported psychopathic traits. Contrary to expectations, perceptual accuracy was barely associated with relationship quality. Whereas no evidence was found for the moderating role of aggressive conflict tactics, non-violent negotiation seemed to buffer the effect of psychopathic traits on relationship quality. The study highlights the importance of considering the partner’s perceptions as well as constructive conflict tactics when examining psychopathic traits in intimate relationships.

Keywords: psychopathy, relationship quality, intimate partner violence, negotiation, conflict tactics

Exposure to The Ultimate Fighter, with fighters competing on violent mixed martial arts, significantly reduced crime; these effects are particularly evident for assault, began in the month the show premiered, and persisted for many years

Effects of Violent Media Content: Evidence from the Rise of the UFC. Jason M. Lindo, Isaac D.Swensen, Glen R. Waddell. Journal of Health Economics, April 22 2022, 102623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2022.102623

Abstract: We document the effect of violent media on crime. Specifically, we evaluate the effects of The Ultimate Fighter, a hit TV show that features fighters competing in violent mixed martial arts and which brought Ultimate Fighting Championship into the mainstream. We estimate the effect of exposure to the show’s earliest episodes using panel data from police agencies across the United States and a strategy that uses network ratings prior to the show’s premier as an instrumental variable. We show that this exposure significantly reduced crime: these effects are particularly evident for assault, began in the month the show premiered, and persisted for many years. These estimates do not reflect systematic differences across geographic areas in their trends in crime rates prior to 2005. To complement our main results, we also investigate the effects of “UFC Main Events,” which air in bars and on Pay-Per-View. This analysis additionally suggests reductions in violence caused by viewership.

JEL: K42 L82 L83

Unsociable emerging adults reported significantly greater happiness, satisfaction with their lives, social support, and self-worth than both shy and avoidant emerging adults

Is there an Upside to Social Withdrawal? Considering Well-Being among Socially Withdrawn Emerging Adults. Leanna M. Closson, Alicia M. McVarnock & Laura E. Cook. Applied Research in Quality of Life, Apr 25 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11482-022-10056-w

Abstract: Removing oneself from social interactions, referred to as social withdrawal, has primarily been shown to predict maladjustment. Previous research distinguishing between social withdrawal subtypes based on individual differences in underlying social motivations, indicates that shyness and avoidance are more problematic than unsociability, particularly during the emerging adulthood years. Nevertheless, little research has examined the potential upside to social withdrawal. The aim of this study was to consider differences in well-being between sociable, shy, avoidant, and unsociable emerging adults. Participants included 813 Canadian university students between the ages of 18 to 25. Participants completed a series of self-report surveys assessing social withdrawal and indices of well-being. Results showed that unsociable emerging adults reported significantly greater happiness, satisfaction with their lives, social support, and self-worth than both shy and avoidant emerging adults. Social withdrawal is largely viewed as detrimental to psychosocial functioning; however, these findings show that unsociability might not pose the same risk to emerging adults’ well-being as shyness or avoidance. Indicators of well-being among unsociable emerging adults did not significantly differ from their more sociable counterparts, suggesting there may be an upside to social withdrawal for unsociable individuals.

Happy people tend to be more similar to each other than unhappy people

Iliev, Rumen, and Will Bennis. 2022. “The Convergence of Positivity: Are Happy People All Alike?” PsyArXiv. April 25. doi:10.31234/osf.io/5zdp2a

Abstract: More than a century ago Leo Tolstoy noted that happy families tend to be more similar to each other than unhappy families. Was this just a cognitive illusion, driven by his mind’s predisposition to see positive entities as more similar to each other, or did he make a profound observation about the world? If it is true, is the phenomenon limited to happiness, or is it a characteristic of positive traits more generally? This question has received attention in multiple fields, but not in psychology. We ran five studies, testing the more general hypothesis that people who share some positive individual-difference trait are more alike than those who do not (The Convergence of Positivity Hypothesis), and we consistently found empirical support for it. Happier, healthier and richer people were more alike in their personality, values, and in various other domains. The research approach we followed here departs from traditional behavioral science methods and proposes a different level of analysis, where valence and directionality play a central role. We speculate about why this pattern might exist and about the boundary conditions, including whether it extends beyond individual differences to a broader set of complex systems where positivity can be defined.

Brazilian jeitinho, an informal problem-solving strategy that is central to Brazilian culture: We found no practically meaningful mean differences: jeitinho was endorsed equally across all regions of the country

An Exploration of Within-Cultural Differences of a Culture-specific Syndrome: The Case of Brazilian jeitinho. Ronaldo Pilati, Ronald Fischer. Cross-Cultural Research, April 21, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/10693971221086818

Abstract: To what extent are cultural syndromes invariant within nations or can we identify within-cultural variability in structure and endorsement of cultural syndromes? These questions are central to a) recent discussions around the relevance of nation-states in cultural vs. geographical psychology and b) explorations of how cultural syndromes described in anthropological research are endorsed by individuals within and across regions within the country. We report data on Brazilian jeitinho, an informal problem-solving strategy that is central to Brazilian culture but may show within-cultural variability as suggested in previous anthropological and sociological research. Using a large online sample (N = 1259) we found evidence of full score equivalence for two multi-dimensional jeitinho measures across the most populous Brazilian regions, suggesting that respondents interpret the instruments similarly. Second, we found no practically meaningful mean differences: jeitinho was endorsed equally across all regions of the country. Finally, we found some small but consistent associations with demographic variables, notably gender, age, and education differences. We need to pay greater attention to behavioral functionality at individual level—the social position of individuals within the system rather than geographical boundaries.

Keywords: jeitinho, cultural syndrome, informal problem-solving strategy, simpatia, culture-specific behavior

Wealth inherited in silence, with not much agitation and propaganda

Ruchir Sharma @Financial Times:

Macron had promised to reduce state spending — then a record at more than 56 per cent of gross domestic product — by about 5 percentage points. Instead, under pressure from protests and the pandemic, state spending rose to a staggering 60 per cent of GDP. France’s government spending is 15 points above the average for developed economies.

Moreover, that gap is explained less by heavy spending on education, health or housing than on welfare programmes, which at 18 per cent of GDP is nearly double the average for developed economies. France is stuck in a welfare trap, spending generously on income transfers but pushed by voters to spend even more, given discontent with the rising cost of living and with inequality.

On inheritance outside the US, which is the Grrreat Wooorry these days:

Total billionaire wealth doubled under Macron to 17 per cent of GDP, and nearly 80 per cent of French billionaires’ wealth is inherited — among the highest in the world.

 

h/t Tyler Cowen. Link to Sharma's article in his post https://marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2022/04/france-analysis-of-the-day.html

Dark Triad 18 cultures (Europe, America, Africa, Asia): Men higher than women on all traits in most cultures, gender differences generally larger in European countries (Senegal findings shows women higher in psychopathy)

Dark Triad Traits, Social Position, and Personality: A Cross-Cultural Study. Anton Aluja et al. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, January 26, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220221211072816

Abstract: This research explores the Dark Triad traits in 18 cultures from Europe, America, Africa, and Asia. We examined the relationships among Dark Triad traits, as measured by the SD3, with gender, age, social status, and two personality models, HEXACO and Zuckerman’s alternative five factor model (AFFM). There were 10,298 participants (5,410 women and 4,888 men) with a mean age of 40.31 (SD = 17.32) years old. Between 6% and 16% of the variance in the Dark Triad traits was accounted by culture. Men scored higher than women on all three traits in most cultures, but gender differences were generally larger in European countries. The relationship between the Dark Triad traits dimensions and age is negative, but the largest effect size is small (Psychopathy; η2 = .018). Psychopathy is associated with low Social Position, and Narcissism with high Social Position. In regard to Personality traits, Narcissism is positively related to Extraversion, and Psychopathy is negatively related to Conscientiousness for the HEXACO, and Narcissism is positively related to Activity and Sensation Seeking, and Machiavellianism and Psychopathy are positively related to Aggressiveness and Sensation Seeking for the AFFM.

Keywords: Dark Triad traits, SD3, HEXACO, AFFM, cross-cultural, personality

Hadza hunter-gatherers are not deontologists and do not prefer deontologists as social partners

Hadza hunter-gatherers are not deontologists and do not prefer deontologists as social partners. Kristopher M. Smith, Coren L. Apicella. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 101, July 2022, 104314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104314

Abstract: Researchers hypothesize that social selection resulting from partner choice may have shaped deontological moral reasoning in humans. People in Western societies judge deontologists to be more trustworthy than utilitarians and prefer them as cooperative partners. We test if the preference for deontologists as social partners generalizes to the Hadza, hunter-gatherers residing in Tanzania. We presented 134 Hadza participants with three ecologically-relevant sacrificial dilemmas and asked them to judge whether the actor should sacrifice one person to save five. We then randomly assigned participants to hear that the actor made either a deontological or utilitarian decision and asked them to make partner choice judgments about the actor in the dilemma. Compared to 249 US Mechanical Turk participants, Hadza participants were more likely to think the actor should choose the utilitarian option. Regardless of what option they thought the actor should choose, Hadza participants showed no preference for the deontological or utilitarian decision-maker, whereas Mechanical Turk participants who thought the actor should choose the deontological option had a strong preference for the deontological actor. These results suggest the preference for deontological decision-makers as cooperative partners is culturally variable.

Keywords: Moral dilemmaDeontologyUtilitarianPartner choiceMoral characterPerson perception

Peers often recognize Nobel laureates as “Renaissance” intellects; prize committees often award their prizes for transdisciplinarity & integration; the Nobel laureates often describe their polymathy as *conscious* choice to optimize creative potential

Polymathy Among Nobel Laureates As a Creative Strategy— The Qualitative and Phenomenological Evidence. Michele Root-Bernstein & Robert Root-Bernstein. reativity Research Journal, Apr 25 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2022.2051294

Abstract: Previous statistical studies found that polymathic networks of vocational and avocational interest predominate among Nobel Prize winners, discriminating them from less-successful peers. Here we confirm qualitatively and phenomenologically that this multidisciplinarity is a considered creative strategy. Peers often recognize Nobel laureates as “Renaissance” intellects; Nobel Prize committees often award their prizes for transdisciplinarity and integration; Nobel laureates often describe their polymathy as conscious choice to optimize creative potential. That so many Nobel laureates should develop diverse interests and harness them to creative ends is, probably, the result of a confluence of factors. Laureates experience, on average, enhanced access to education; they train differently and more broadly than their peers; they retrain and extend themselves as serious amateurs; and they meld vocational and avocational sets of skills and knowledge into integrated networks of transdisciplinary enterprise. In effect, this combinatorial approach to learning and doing enables them to perceive unusual problems at the intersections of disciplines, to transfer ideas and techniques from one field to another, and/or to synthesize knowledge across domains. Specializing in breadth can be a path to innovation comparable to, and (at least in terms of Nobel Prizes) arguably better than, specialization alone.

After a database of gun holders was publicized, burglaries increased in zip codes with fewer gun permits, and decreased in those with more gun permits

Guns, Privacy, and Crime. Alessandro Acquisti & Catherine Tucker. NBER Working Paper 29940, Apr 2022. DOI 10.3386/w29940

Abstract: Open government holds promise of both a more efficient but more accountable and transparent government. It is not clear, however, how transparent information about citizens and their interaction with government, however, affects the welfare of those citizens, and if so in what direction. We investigate this by using as a natural experiment the effect of the online publication of the names and addresses of holders of handgun carry permits on criminals' propensity to commit burglaries. In December 2008, a Memphis, TN newspaper published a searchable online database of names, zip codes, and ages of Tennessee handgun carry permit holders. We use detailed crime and handgun carry permit data for the city of Memphis to estimate the impact of publicity about the database on burglaries. We find that burglaries increased in zip codes with fewer gun permits, and decreased in those with more gun permits, after the database was publicized.

The immune system can paradoxically mediate lethal effects when it is over-activated; an explanation is a function to restrict the cumulative risk of transmission of highly mutating environmental pathogens that may endanger species

To protect or to kill: a persisting Darwinian immune dilemma. Hugo O. Besedovsky, Adriana del Rey. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, April 22 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2022.04.019

Abstract: The immune system, which evolved as a protective system, can paradoxically mediate lethal effects when it is over-activated. These effects can be traced back to infected insects and are mainly mediated by phylogenetically old cytokines that have been found already in starfishes and sponges. We hypothesize that these anti-homeostatic effects are important for restricting the cumulative risk of transmission of highly mutating environmental pathogens that may endanger species, particularly when they start to originate and expand. Considering the Darwinian view that evolution is a permanent process, this anti-homeostatic program is preserved and expressed even when there is no risk for the species. Here, we review these aspects and discuss how evolutionary-imposed anti-homeostatic immune programs are expressed during acute and chronic human diseases, which can be further aggravated in the absence of medical interventions. The relevance of early identification of ancestral biomarkers that predict a shift from protective to deleterious immune outcomes is emphasized.

The peak-end rule: When people retrospectively evaluate an experience (e.g., the previous workday), they rely more heavily on the episode with peak intensity and on the final (end) episode than on other episodes in the experience

All’s well that ends (and peaks) well? A meta-analysis of the peak-end rule and duration neglect. Balca Alaybek et al. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes Volume 170, May 2022, 104149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2022.104149

Highlights

• The peak-end rule is an efficient heuristic for evaluating past experiences.

• The meta-analytic peak-end effect is large and robust across moderators examined.

• The peak-end effect is stronger than the duration, beginning, and trough effects.

• The peak-end effect is stronger than the trend and variability effects.

• The peak-end effect is comparable to the overall average effect.

Abstract: The peak-end rule (Fredrickson & Kahneman, 1993) asserts that, when people retrospectively evaluate an experience (e.g., the previous workday), they rely more heavily on the episode with peak intensity and on the final (end) episode than on other episodes in the experience. We meta-analyzed 174 effect sizes and found strong support for the peak-end rule. The peak-end effect on retrospective summary evaluations was: (1) large (r = 0.581, 95% Confidence Interval = 0.487–0.661), (2) robust across boundary conditions, (3) comparable to the effect of the overall average (mean) score and stronger than the effects of the trend and variability across all episodes in the experience, (4) stronger than the effects of the first (beginning) and lowest intensity (trough) episodes, and (5) stronger than the effect of the duration of the experience (which was essentially nil, thereby supporting the idea of duration neglect; Fredrickson & Kahneman, 1993). We provide a future research agenda and practical implications.

Keywords: PeakEndTroughDuration neglectHeuristicsRetrospective evaluationsGestalt characteristics

Among white Americans, therefore, Democrats experienced a substantially greater increase in distress in response to the pandemic than Republicans

Distressed Democrats and relaxed Republicans? Partisanship and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sean Bock, Landon Schnabel. PLoS April 21, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266562

Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic was a potent stressor, yielding unprecedented levels of mental distress. However, public health responses and personal reactions to the pandemic were politically polarized, with Democrats highlighting and Republicans downplaying its severity. Did Republicans subsequently experience as much mental distress as Democrats during the COVID-19 pandemic? This study examines partisan patterns in mental health outcomes at three time points throughout the pandemic. Results demonstrate a clear partisan distress gap, with Democrats consistently reporting worse mental health than Republicans. Trend data suggest that the 2020 pandemic patterns are a continuation and exacerbation of an existing partisan distress gap. Consideration of race, however, demonstrates a widening partisan distress gap, specific to white Americans. Among white Americans, therefore, Democrats experienced a substantially greater increase in distress in response to the pandemic than Republicans.

Conclusion

The COVID-19 pandemic acted as a powerful stressor, leading to increased distress among Americans. Distress during the pandemic was politically polarized, however, such that Democrats reported consistently higher distress levels compared to Republicans, suggesting a clear partisan distress gap. This gap did not simply emerge as a result of the pandemic, but rather reflects a pre-existing partisan distress gap. Yet, marked intra-party variation in experiences with the pandemic results in a more nuanced story: White Democrats experienced the largest increase in distress along several measures from the pandemic, which produced a widening distress gap among white partisans. Further, over-time data show the pandemic accelerated a long-running trend of a closing of the racial happiness gap among Democrats. Whereas the partisan gap used to be disproportionately driven by the unhappiness of black Democrats, it is now driven primarily by the unhappiness of white Democrats. These patterns highlight the importance of race for trends in partisanship and polarization more generally.

The results point to several possible extensions. The data for this study are from the summer of 2020, before widespread vaccine roll out. As the pandemic wears on, we are experiencing a mental health crisis. Isolation, distress about the present, and uncertainty about the future—not to mention lost friends and family—are taking a toll. Partisan vaccine uptake further highlights the partisan nature of pandemic response, but it may have changed the equation in ways that should be examined in future research. With vaccines, Democrats may be able to regain some of the normalcy and connections they lost in isolation. And serious illness and death have become visibly partisan with the vaccines, and the greater loss experienced among Republicans, and perhaps eventual acceptance of COVID-19 as a real threat and the pandemic something to worry about, may fuel greater distress among them than in the past. Beyond the partisan nature of mental wellbeing in the pandemic, we hope this study will motivate future research on race (and ethnicity) in these processes more generally. These data were effective for highlighting race trends between black and white Americans over decades and future research should further disentangle racial and ethnic trends in partisanship and distress among and between more groups.

Power in the Wild: The Subtle and Not-So-Subtle Ways Animals Strive for Control over Others

Power in the Wild: The Subtle and Not-So-Subtle Ways Animals Strive for Control over Others. Lee Alan Dugatkin. The University of Chicago Press, Apr 2022. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo127023354.html

From the shell wars of hermit crabs to little blue penguins spying on potential rivals, power struggles in the animal kingdom are as diverse as they are fascinating, and this book illuminates their surprising range and connections.

The quest for power in animals is so much richer, so much more nuanced than who wins what knock-down, drag-out fight. Indeed, power struggles among animals often look more like an opera than a boxing match. Tracing the path to power for over thirty different species on six continents, writer and behavioral ecologist Lee Alan Dugatkin takes us on a journey around the globe, shepherded by leading researchers who have discovered that in everything from hyenas to dolphins, bonobos to field mice, cichlid fish to cuttlefish, copperhead snakes to ravens, and meerkats to mongooses, power revolves around spying, deception, manipulation, forming and breaking up alliances, complex assessments of potential opponents, building social networks, and more. Power pervades every aspect of the social life of animals: what they eat, where they eat, where they live, whom they mate with, how many offspring they produce, whom they join forces with, and whom they work to depose. In some species, power can even change an animal’s sex. Nor are humans invulnerable to this magnificently intricate melodrama: Dugatkin’s tales of the researchers studying power in animals are full of unexpected pitfalls, twists and turns, serendipity, and the pure joy of scientific discovery.

Letters To A Spanish Youngster CCLXVIII

Letters To A Spanish Youngster CCLXVIII

[...]

Your Honor the young person of sensibility & beauty to whom I ask for mercy,/Su Señoría el joven de sensibilidad y hermosura a quien pido piedad,

I read V Nabokov's words about himself and his marriage*/He leído las palabras de V Nabokov sobre sí mismo y su matrimonio, dirigidas a su esposa:

[I know that I am a very boring and unpleasant man, drowned in literature... But I love you.]

[Sé que soy una persona muy aburrida y desagradable, sumergido en la literatura... Pero te quiero.]

I am also boring and unpleasant... But I love you, Your Honor :-( ./ Yo también soy aburrido y desagradable... Pero le quiero, Su Señoría :-( .

---

I also keep writing down the young ibn Gabirol’s poems**:/Sigo reproduciendo los poemas del joven ibn Gabirol:

[On love's instability/De la inestabilidad del amor]

                                                      [Que solo en la presencia de las gentes

                                                       sonríen los que aman,

                                                       mas en sus tiendas lloran      y amargamente gimen.]

[To a friend in illness/A un amigo enfermo]

                                                      [Amigos, habladle dulzuras;

                                                       tal vez haga entonces que torne su juicio a mi alma.

                                                       Pues él dispersaba mi llanto

                                                       al tiempo que yo lo reuniera,

                                                       y cuando mi alma se hallaba dispersa,

                                                       aquél la reunía.

                                                       [...]

                                                       [Mi alma ha sido acrisolada

                                                       en el horno de las aflicciones]]

[Giving thanks for a letter and a gift/Agradeciendo una carta y un regalo]

                                                      [Vive Dios, que conoce mi alma y que entiende

                                                       las cosas ocultas de su pensamiento,

                                                       que te amó desde aquel mismo día

                                                       en que yo te escuchara

                                                       y que fuiste honorable y preciado a sus ojos.

                                                       Y yo debo aplacar a mi amado,

                                                       [...]

                                                       [llevar la dulzura a Su cara.]

                                                       Mas perdona mi falta y espera

                                                       como el juez que pronuncia sus juicios con pausa.]

[Commending a generous man/Alabanza a un hombre generoso]

                                                      [¡Ay, que mis huesos ruedan!, pues se entremezlan

                                                       mis aflicciones.

                                                       [...] mis amigos

                                                       cuando se fueron

                                                       se llevaron mi alma con mi sosiego.

                                                       Por eso lloro:

                                                       no se interrumpen

                                                       ni de noche mis lágrimas ni de día.

                                                       Si las puertas del rezo Dios ha cerrado,

                                                       clausuradas no han sido las de las lágrimas;

                                                       pues mis angustias

                                                       y mis temores

                                                       sobre mí han aumentado y han recrecido.

                                                       [...]

                                                       Alabados han sido en él la risa

                                                       de su boca y el júbilo de su cara

                                                       así como sus dádivas.

                                                       [...]

                                                       Este poema habla de su clemencia,

                                                       llenos están de gozo por él sus versos.]

[On a friend/Describiendo a un amigo]

                                                      [Si es el lirio el remate sobre una rama,

                                                       ¿tu, sobre el fuste,

                                                       un capitel de oro no eres acaso?

                                                       Como un sol que camina pausadamente

                                                       sobre el Zodiaco,

                                                       ¡ay!, va robando

                                                       sin violencia y despacio los corazones.

                                                       Es un cervato;

                                                       cuando se ruborice por tu presencia,

                                                       verás al alabastro trocar su aspecto

                                                       por el del pórfido.

                                                       [...]

                                                       De querubín de oro tiene la imagen:

                                                       extendidas sus alas, como extendidas

                                                       las tenían los ángeles situados

                                                       sobre el Propiciatorio.]

[Complaining of being abandoned by a benefactor/Quejas por el desvío de un mecenas]

                                                      [Desnudo está mi brazo contra los golpes

                                                       de la fortuna

                                                       y en contra mía

                                                       la espada del destino desenvainada.

                                                       En riada de angustias fui anegado,

                                                       como espiga agostada permaneciera;

                                                       en cuidado me tienen mis aflicciones

                                                       y resuello y jadeo, pues me ha absorbido

                                                       aspirándome el hado.]

[To someone who sees him as a rival/En contestacion a quien le cree su enemigo]

                                                      [Oculto está en mi alma      mi amor por ti y lo muestra

                                                       mi corazón haciéndolo patente.]

[Funeral hymn for his father/Endecha por su padre]

                                                      [de tu queja, los cielos se anublaron

                                                       [...]

                                                       [...] de tanto

                                                       padecer, me dejaron las angustias

                                                       endurecido [...]

                                                       [...] fue tu mal mi daño,

                                                       sobre mí fue gravoso y prolongado.

                                                       [...]

                                                       Si contigo las joyas de la tierra

                                                       compararan, entonces menguaría

                                                       su valor como el tuyo ascendería.]

Fully grasping the degree in which Your soul was prized with the gods' favor, & how much You were loved by the gold goddess, my benevolent master, Yours faithfully/Alcanzando plena consciencia del grado en que Su alma fue premiada con el favor de los dioses y cuánto fue Vd. amado por la diosa dorada, mi dueño benevolente, Suyo fielmente

                 a. r. ante Su Señoría

--

Notes

*  V Nabokov's Letters to Véra. Penguin Books, 2016. https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/176961/letters-to-vera/9780141192246.html

**  Adapted from Selected Poems of Solomon ibn Gabirol, translated by Peter Cole (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2001), & the Spanish version from Selomó ibn Gabirol—Poesía secular, by Elena Romero (Madrid: Alfaguara, 1978)

The Autodidactic Universe: An approach to cosmology in which the Universe learns its own physical laws

The Autodidactic Universe. Stephon Alexander, William J. Cunningham, Jaron Lanier, Lee Smolin, Stefan Stanojevic, Michael W. Toomey, Dave Wecker. arXiv Sep 2 2021. https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.03902

Abstract: We present an approach to cosmology in which the Universe learns its own physical laws. It does so by exploring a landscape of possible laws, which we express as a certain class of matrix models. We discover maps that put each of these matrix models in correspondence with both a gauge/gravity theory and a mathematical model of a learning machine, such as a deep recurrent, cyclic neural network. This establishes a correspondence between each solution of the physical theory and a run of a neural network. This correspondence is not an equivalence, partly because gauge theories emerge from N→∞ limits of the matrix models, whereas the same limits of the neural networks used here are not well-defined. We discuss in detail what it means to say that learning takes place in autodidactic systems, where there is no supervision. We propose that if the neural network model can be said to learn without supervision, the same can be said for the corresponding physical theory. We consider other protocols for autodidactic physical systems, such as optimization of graph variety, subset-replication using self-attention and look-ahead, geometrogenesis guided by reinforcement learning, structural learning using renormalization group techniques, and extensions. These protocols together provide a number of directions in which to explore the origin of physical laws based on putting machine learning architectures in correspondence with physical theories. 

In high-income countries, relation of women’s labor force participation & fertility is now positive; father contribution rates to child-raising are more important for fertility; & fathers seem most interested in children in Norway, the least in Russia

The Economics of Fertility: A New Era. Matthias Doepke, Anne Hannusch, Fabian Kindermann & Michèle Tertilt. NBER Working Paper 29948. Apr 2022. DOI 10.3386/w29948

Abstract: In this survey, we argue that the economic analysis of fertility has entered a new era. First-generation models of fertility choice were designed to account for two empirical regularities that, in the past, held both across countries and across families in a given country: a negative relationship between income and fertility, and another negative relationship between women's labor force participation and fertility. The economics of fertility has entered a new era because these stylized facts no longer universally hold. In high-income countries, the income-fertility relationship has flattened and in some cases reversed, and the cross-country relationship between women's labor force participation and fertility is now positive. We summarize these new facts and describe new models that are designed to address them. The common theme of these new theories is that they view factors that determine the compatibility of women's career and family goals as key drivers of fertility. We highlight four factors that facilitate combining a career with a family: family policy, cooperative fathers, favorable social norms, and flexible labor markets. We also review other recent developments in the literature, and we point out promising new directions for future research on the economics of fertility.

---

h/t Tyler Cowen https://marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2022/04/new-developments-in-the-economics-of-fertility.html : Another result is that quality vs. quantity tradeoff models for children no longer perform very well.  And fertility-education relationships are greatly weakened, just as the income-fertility relationships are.  The marketization of childcare is likely an important cause of this shift.

Italy and Spain are two countries where the income-fertility relationship is not being reversed.

Father contribution rates to child-raising are growing in importance for fertility.  Fathers seem most interested in their children in Norway, and least interested in Russia, of the countries sampled.

If a couple disagrees on having another kid, the chance they do is relatively small.

In Denmark in 2015, six percent of all births occurred with some kind of medical help related to conception.

There are now positive correlations between public childcare provision, though I do not in this paper see any reliable causal estimate.

The paper has a section on social norms, but it oddly fails to consider religion.

There is some evidence for peer effects mattering for fertility, for instance in a workplace.

21% of autosomal DNA in eastern chimpanzees derives from western chimpanzee introgression & all four chimpanzee lineages share a common ancestor about 987,000 y ago (much earlier than thought), with a male reproductive & dispersal skew

Estimating bonobo (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) evolutionary history from nucleotide site patterns. Colin M. Brand et al. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, April 22, 2022 | 119 (17) e2200858119 | https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2200858119

Significance: There is genomic evidence of widespread admixture in deep time between many closely related species, including humans. Our closest living relatives, bonobos and chimpanzees, may also exhibit such patterns. However, assessing the exact degree of interbreeding remains challenging because previous studies have resulted in multiple inconsistent demographic models. We use an approach that addresses these gaps by analyzing all lineages, simultaneously estimating parameters, and comparing previously models. We find evidence of considerable introgression from western into eastern chimpanzees. We also show more breeding females than males and evidence of male-biased dispersal in western chimpanzees. These findings highlight the extent of admixture in bonobo and chimpanzee evolutionary history and are consistent with substantial differences between past and present chimpanzee biogeography.

Abstract: Admixture appears increasingly ubiquitous in the evolutionary history of various taxa, including humans. Such gene flow likely also occurred among our closest living relatives: bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). However, our understanding of their evolutionary history has been limited by studies that do not consider all Pan lineages or do not analyze all lineages simultaneously, resulting in conflicting demographic models. Here, we investigate this gap in knowledge using nucleotide site patterns calculated from whole-genome sequences from the autosomes of 71 bonobos and chimpanzees, representing all five extant Pan lineages. We estimated demographic parameters and compared all previously proposed demographic models for this clade. We further considered sex bias in Pan evolutionary history by analyzing the site patterns from the X chromosome. We show that 1) 21% of autosomal DNA in eastern chimpanzees derives from western chimpanzee introgression and that 2) all four chimpanzee lineages share a common ancestor about 987,000 y ago, much earlier than previous estimates. In addition, we suggest that 3) there was male reproductive skew throughout Pan evolutionary history and find evidence of 4) male-biased dispersal from western to eastern chimpanzees. Collectively, these results offer insight into bonobo and chimpanzee evolutionary history and suggest considerable differences between current and historic chimpanzee biogeography.