Autistic people outperform neurotypicals in a cartoon version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes

Autistic people outperform neurotypicals in a cartoon version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes. Liam Cross, Andrea Piovesan, Gray Atherton. Autism Research, July 20 2022. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2782

Abstract: Prior research suggests that while autistic people may demonstrate poorer facial emotion recognition when stimuli are human, these differences lessen when stimuli are anthropomorphic. To investigate this further, this work explores emotion recognition in autistic and neurotypical adults (n = 196). Groups were compared on a standard and a cartoon version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test. Results indicated that autistic individuals were not significantly different from neurotypicals on the standard version. However, autistic people outperformed neurotypicals on the cartoon version. The implications for these findings regarding emotion recognition deficits and the social motivation account of autism are discussed and support the view of socio-cognitive differences rather than deficits in this population.

Lay Summary: The Reading the Mind in the Eyes test and a cartoon version were tested on autistic and neurotypical adults. Autistic adults were not significantly different on the original test compared to neurotypicals, but they outperformed neurotypical adults on the cartoon version.

DISCUSSION

Results showed that autistic people did not perform significantly worse on the RME than NTs. While this was not as hypothesized, it may be that the high proportion of female participants boosted ASC performance. Previous work, for instance, has shown that autistic females do not perform differently to NT females (Holt et al., 2014) and that there is a female advantage in the RME (Kirkland et al., 2013). Additionally, this may be explained by adding definitions to the RME to remove variance associated with vocabulary differences. In line with our predictions, individuals with ASC outperformed NTs on the cartoon version of the task. These results suggest that autistic individuals may lack a human-specific specialization in this domain seen in NTs. For instance, NTs performed better on the RME than the C-RME, while this was not the case for autistic individuals, whose performance on the two versions did not significantly differ. This is the first study to find that autistic people outperform NTs on the RME.1 Our results suggest that NT people have more difficulty than autistic people when the agent being evaluated is anthropomorphic. Our findings also suggest that autistic people are perhaps not experiencing the same processing deficits as NTs when taking the C-RME. Why might this be?

We speculated that this could be driven by either a reduced motivation for actual human agents or an increased motivation to evaluate cartoon agents. The descriptive statistics in the present study suggest that the interaction seen in the present study was likely driven not by autistic individuals over performing on the C-RME but by NTs underperforming on the C-RME. Additionally, descriptive statistics relating to the measure of difficulty suggested that the autistic individuals found both tasks more difficult than NTs on average. However, this difference was not significant at the 0.05 level.

If NTs were to be used as a ‘benchmark’ for FER development, it would appear that there is a specialization for the human in typical development. As a result, anthropomorphic FER is more difficult for NTs. Considering that autistic people do not see a reduced performance on such measures, they may not experience the same specialized interest or aptitude for human FER. Interestingly, this does not lead to the deterioration of anthropomorphic FER. Specifically, autistic performance was not lower across both conditions, and it did not follow the same pattern as NTs. As such, it may be that autistic people also have an enhanced ability to perform anthropomorphic FER. This ability may develop through protracted engagement with anthropomorphic agents, as is suggested through research on restricted interests. The enhanced development of anthropomorphic FER in autistic people would contrast with research suggesting that FER deficits only increase as autistic people age (Lozier et al., 2014). Instead, perhaps autistic people, and those with high autistic traits, continue to develop anthropomorphic FER and ToM which allows them to eventually surpass NTs. This continued development may explain why studies on very young autistic children show impaired performance in both human and nonhuman face recognition (Chawarska & Volkmar, 2007), while studies on older autistic children, adolescents and adults show an intact or even relatively enhanced ability for nonhuman performance (for a review, see Atherton & Cross, 2018).

Autism research is rife with studies showing that autistic people enjoy engaging with the nonhuman and may be doing so increasingly throughout development, whether it be through animation (Holmgaard et al., 2013), contact with pets (Atherton et al., 2022), animal-assisted therapy (O'Haire, 2013), or even embodying the nonhuman during online game-play (Stendal & Balandin, 2015) (for a review, see Atherton & Cross, 2018). This type of engagement may allow autistic people to develop social expertise and derive social pleasure in ways that do not rely on human specialization, which may function as an extension of how autistic people begin to see themselves as more than human (Davidson & Smith, 2009). Future research should look to better understand autistic people's motivations for interacting with anthropomorphic agents. Cross et al. (2019) and Carter et al. (2016) suggest that using anthropomorphic agents in therapeutic contexts may also improve social understanding and connection. Including such agents in virtual settings and observing changes in responsiveness would be a valuable avenue for future research. 

A small percentage of the population struggles with a complete lack of navigational skills; most are men, which is rich

“Where am I?” A snapshot of the developmental topographical disorientation among young Italian adults. Laura Piccardi et al. PLoS, July 20, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271334

Abstract: In the last decade, several cases affected by Developmental Topographical Disorientation (DTD) have been described. DTD consists of a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting the ability to orient in the environment despite well-preserved cognitive functions, and in the absence of a brain lesion or other neurological or psychiatric conditions. Described cases showed different impairments in navigational skills ranging from topographic memory deficits to landmark agnosia. All cases lacked a mental representation of the environment that would allow them to use high-order spatial orientation strategies. In addition to the single case studies, a group study performed in Canada showed that the disorder is more widespread than imagined. The present work intends to investigate the occurrence of the disorder in 1,698 young Italian participants. The sample is deliberately composed of individuals aged between 18 and 35 years to exclude people who could manifest the loss of the ability to navigate as a result of an onset of cognitive decline. The sample was collected between 2016 and 2019 using the Qualtrics platform, by which the Familiarity and Spatial Cognitive Style Scale and anamnestic interview were administered. The data showed that the disorder is present in 3% of the sample and that the sense of direction is closely related to town knowledge, navigational strategies adopted, and gender. In general, males use more complex navigational strategies than females, although DTD is more prevalent in males than in females, in line with the already described cases. Finally, the paper discusses which protective factors can reduce DTD onset and which intervention measures should be implemented to prevent the spread of navigational disorders, which severely impact individuals’ autonomy and social relationships.

Discussion

The present online investigation aimed to estimate the presence of DTD in a large young Italian sample to better understand the spread of this condition in the population. Thus, we considered the percentage of the DTD in a sample of 1,698 participants, using as a basic criterion 2 standard deviations below the means of the SOD. Then, we also investigated the critical factors predictive of both the SOD and DTD. As in Iaria and Barton’s study [74], we confirmed that the rate of occurrence of the disorder is not a rare condition; rather, it affects 3% of young people undermining their autonomy and ability to work away from family boundaries.

As concerns the predictive factors of SOD, the analyses showed that gender more than educational level is strictly related to SOD. In particular, although females use more landmark-based navigational strategies and complain more difficulties in SOD, males show a higher risk of DTD than females. Indeed, given a glance at the DTD literature, the most of the single cases described are males; this means that although males have better visuospatial and navigational skills than females, they are also the most fragile [69, 70, 72, 75, 77]. Moreover, SOD was related to TK and Survey competencies. Iaria and co-workers [87] clarified that normal navigators can switch from one strategy to another by increasing their familiarity with the environment. This means that it is possible to implement higher navigational skills by acting on environmental knowledge. Also in Nori and Piccardi [37] emerged that when the individual was familiar with the environment, even if s/he generally preferred low navigational strategies, s/he was able to perform more complex navigational tasks in that specific environment, therefore, citizens of Bologna who were familiar with a neighbourhood of the city were able to recognize rotated monuments of the city even though their ability to mentally rotate an object was low [37, 84].

Consistent with these results, we found that TK and the Survey strategy are negatively related to DTD, suggesting that they can be protective factors in counteracting the onset of DTD. In this vein, Bartonek and co-workers [88–90] showed that children with cerebral palsy and motor disability manifested differences in topographic working memory as a function of the degree of autonomy to explore the environment, regardless of motor impairment. Our results also showed that the use of advanced navigational strategies (survey strategies) is not associated with the presence of DTD. In line with this finding, we also showed that individuals who achieve high spatial skills do not complain of RLC, which is generally involved in navigational disorders [60]. Consistent with this result, Giancola et al. [36] showed that survey strategies also characterise samples of experienced navigators, such as military pilots. According to Verde et al. [32, 33, 91, 92] this professional category is already selected on the basis of spatial and navigational skills. In addition, the military training would reinforce the survey strategy even more, including all those cognitive processes related to navigation, such as the ability to mentally rotate two and three-dimensional objects [93] or the ability to make directional and metric judgments.

Undoubtedly, the presence of a navigational deficit can also make the subject anxious and more reluctant to explore the environment, so it is difficult to determine how much one comes before the other. This result is particularly interesting in light of Lopez et al.’s [94] study, which showed that the role of the direct experience with exploring hometown on spatial mental representations appeared to be more important in the elderly than in young people. Our sample includes young people, therefore we can imagine that TK and the Survey strategy protects not only seniors from the detrimental effects of ageing on spatial mental representations but also young people in acquiring spatial competence by reducing the risk of navigational disorders.

Given the key role of spatial strategies, our results imply navigational training starting with pre-schoolers, in order to prevent the DTD, such as the one already used in Boccia et al. [95], which allows implementing spatial orientation and autonomy skills from the earliest years of life, starting in kindergarten. The introduction of navigational training in education settings may be useful not only for healthy children but also for children with different types of disabilities (e.g. sensory-motor impairments or acquired brain-damaged or ADHD: [96]), who show several navigational disorders. Furthermore, given that simply enhancing cognitive performance is insufficient to reduce a sense of inadequacy about one’s ability [97], the introduction of training activities specifically designed to improve metacognition would improve self-efficacy in individuals with respect to their SOD and related activities, and by consequence would reduce the risk of DTD. In this vein, De Lisi and Wolford [98] showed children improvements in mental rotation through the daily practice of the popular video game Tetris. This policy of intervention could have important spin-offs increasing also social life.

The current research is not without limitations. First, the study was conducted using an online self-reported survey. In the future it will be important to investigate DTD in presence using a battery of navigational tests. For example, no significant result was found in terms of MoT (active and/or passive movements in the environment). Probably this aspect should be investigated differently by quantifying more precisely the movements and their duration and stratifying the sample by strategies developed. Future work should investigate this component along with environmental characteristics (size of the place where one lives; the presence of distant landmarks; need to travel far to receive medical care or to use school services). Second, individuals with DTD were not tested for other cognitive deficits using a battery of neuropsychological tests, but were only asked to report if they suffered from cognitive disorders. Third, the diagnosis of DTD was not supported by structural imaging data in order to exclude the presence of any brain lesions.

In conclusion, the present study allowed us to identify in a large sample of young Italians the presence of DTD and its occurrence. It has also allowed us to observe protective factors that are associated with good navigational skills and that in the future can be used within protocols for the prevention of the development of spatial orientation disorders, as well as to promote these skills by reducing the gender gap that still emerged in this sample.

Large-scale longitudinal research indicates that people shift to more left-leaning parties up to midlife and then become more likely to swing back towards rightist political parties

Age and vote choice: Is there a conservative shift among older voters? Benny Geys, Tom-Reiel Heggedal, Rune J. Sørensen. Electoral Studies, Volume 78, August 2022, 102485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2022.102485

Abstract: Ageing is often believed to induce a movement towards the right of the political spectrum. Yet, empirical evidence remains inconclusive due to a dearth of longitudinal datasets covering multiple cohorts. Using eleven rotating panels of the Norwegian Election Studies (1977–2017) and exploiting first-derivative properties of the vote choice function, our empirical approach identifies non-linear life-cycle effects while controlling for cohort and period effects. Our main findings indicate that shifting towards the left is more likely among the young (under 40 years) whereas shifting towards the right occurs at an older age (over 55 years). Evaluating potential mechanisms, we find that individuals’ income, retirement, family status and political interest explain only a small part of the observed ageing effect. Life-cycle shifts in (some) policy preferences may play a bigger role. Finally, aging effects are similar across women and men, and only marginally stronger among groups with lower education and income levels.

Keywords: Population ageingVote choiceAge-period-cohortRotating panelNorway

4. Conclusion

Up to the 1960s, party choice was generally viewed as a result of stable party identifications and social class (“Michigan school”). Party preferences and political attitudes were assumed to be shaped during an individual's ‘formative’ or ‘impressionable’ years in adolescence and early adulthood, and to remain highly stable thereafter. Subsequent literature has criticized this view based on the recognition that citizens may well change their partisan preferences and ideological positioning over the life cycle. Consistent with the latter view, our analysis shows that people shift to more left-leaning parties up to midlife and then become more likely to swing back towards rightist political parties. These results are obtained using four decades of high-quality Norwegian Election Studies, which feature individual-level rotating panels that allow us to track party shifts over a fixed four-year election cycle.

While our analysis rests on a methodological innovation that allows identifying (non-linear) age effects while controlling for cohort and period effects, it naturally remains a challenge to track the exact mechanisms underlying this result. Nonetheless, our findings by and large reject the notion that social and political ageing can account for much of individuals' tendency to shift towards the right of the political spectrum as they age. This also implies that shifts in party choices over the life cycle are unlikely to be due to differences in individuals’ reliance on public sector transfers and services that accompany such social and political ageing. An alternative mechanism is that party choices can shift over the life-cycle due to changing perspectives on national identify and cultural values. Our evidence here provides partial support. While we find no evidence that fiscal policy preferences affect our estimated age affect, immigration, environmental and rural policy preferences do appear to account for a significant part of the observed ageing effect in vote choices.

Unfortunately, our data do not allow us to explore the role that changes over the life-cycle in individuals’ psychological traits may have on the ageing effects observed in our analysis. Previous research, however, has found some evidence suggestive of age-related psychological and personality changes. For instance, ageing has been linked to increasing levels of conservatism, authoritarianism, prejudice, and self-discipline, as well as lower levels of openness to change and cognitive flexibility (for reviews, see Tilley and Evans, 2014; Peterson et al., 2020). Evaluating whether – and, if so, to what extent – such psychological changes can account for the observed ageing effect would require direct measures of psychological traits at multiple points across the life-cycle. While these are not included in our dataset, we consider the further empirical verification of such psychological mechanisms an important avenue for future research.

Finally, we show that life-cycle effects in individuals’ vote choice are somewhat stronger among individuals with lower income levels. Hence, while the average aging effect observed within our overall sample is unaffected when controlling for income, different income groups within our sample display distinct (subgroup-average) age effects. This suggests that the increasing tendency among well-earning professionals to support left-wing parties in recent decades (e.g., Häusermann et al., 2012; Attewell, 2021; Gethin et al., 2022) need not exclusively derive from generational replacement or cohort effects – as recently argued by, among others, Gethin et al. (2022).

Cooperation among strangers has been hypothesized to have declined in the U.S. over the past several decades, an alarming trend that has potential far-reaching societal consequences; reality says otherwise

Yuan, M., Spadaro, G., Jin, S., Wu, J., Kou, Y., Van Lange, P. A. M., & Balliet, D. (2022). Did cooperation among strangers decline in the United States? A cross-temporal meta-analysis of social dilemmas (1956–2017). Psychological Bulletin, 148(3-4), 129–157. Jul 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000363

Abstract: Cooperation among strangers has been hypothesized to have declined in the United States over the past several decades, an alarming trend that has potential far-reaching societal consequences. To date, most research that supports a decline in cooperation has relied on self-report measures or archival data. Here, we utilize the history of experimental research on cooperation in situations involving conflicting interests (i.e., social dilemmas). We meta-analyzed 511 studies conducted between 1956 and 2017 with 660 unique samples and effect sizes involving 63,342 participants to test whether the average level of cooperation observed in these studies had declined over time. We found no evidence for a decline in cooperation over the 61-year period. Instead, we found a slight increase in cooperation over time. In addition, some societal indicators (e.g., income inequality, societal wealth, urbanization level, and percentage of people living alone) measured 10 to 5 years prior to measures of cooperation were found to be positively associated with cooperation, suggesting that they may be potential societal underpinnings of increases in cooperation. These findings challenge the idea that social capital and civic cooperation among strangers have declined in the United States over time, and we offer directions for future research to understand causes of an increase in cooperation.

Scientific texts in the life sciences 1969-2019: Cluttering of texts, increasing use of emotion adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs in life sciences across 50 years: implications for emotions and readability in academic texts. Ju Wen & Lei Lei. Scientometrics, Jul 11 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11192-022-04453-z

Abstract: Writing in a clear and simple language is critical for scientific communications. Previous studies argued that the use of adjectives and adverbs cluttered writing and made scientific text less readable. The present study aims to investigate if the articles in life sciences have become more cluttered and less readable across the past 50 years in terms of the use of adjectives and adverbs. The data that were used in the study were a large dataset of 775,456 scientific texts published between 1969 and 2019 in 123 scientific journals. Results showed that an increasing number of adjectives and adverbs were used and the readability of scientific texts have decreased in the examined years. More importantly, the use of emotion adjectives and adverbs also demonstrated an upward trend while that of nonemotion adjectives and adverbs did not increase. To our knowledge, this is probably the first large scale diachronic study on the use of adjectives and adverbs in scientific writing. Possible explanations to these findings were discussed.

Rolf Degen summarizing... Curvy female bodies, with low waist-to-hip ratios, pop out in men's and women's visual search

Cloud, J. M., Stone, A. M., & McCarthy, J. D. (2022). No time to “waist:” low waist-to-hip ratios pop out in visual search. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, Jul 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000308

Abstract: Previous research demonstrates that evolutionarily relevant stimuli (e.g., snakes, angry faces) “pop-out” of visual arrays, leading to faster and more accurate identification compared with stimuli that do not impact fitness as strongly. The present study investigated the identification of low (vs. high) waist-to-hip ratios (WHR) using a visual search paradigm: participants searched for a discrepant female torso in matrices of otherwise identical female torsos. Participants viewed 3 × 3 and 5 × 5 matrices of female torsos with low (.70) or high (.90) WHRs and indicated whether a torso with a discrepant WHR was present or absent via a button press. As predicted, participants were faster and more accurate in detecting a low WHR among high WHRs than the reverse; however, results failed to support the predicted interaction whereby matrix size would more strongly affect participants’ ability to detect a torso with a discrepant WHR of .90 than .70. These results suggest that female torsos with low WHR readily capture attention but still require serial processing.

In our audacity, we infer others' political leanings from their faces alone --- and are willing to discriminate against those with dissenting faces

Partisan Discrimination Without Explicit Partisan Cues. Jeffrey Lyons, Stephen M. Utych. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, Vol. 10 No. 1 (2022), Jul 13 2022. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.6491

Abstract: Much research has demonstrated that Democrats and Republicans use information about party affiliation to discriminate against one another. However, we know little about how people gain the necessary information about other people’s partisanship to engage in discriminatory behavior. We explore whether people perceive partisanship when shown only images of faces, and whether they then use these perceptions to engage in partisan discrimination. We find that they do. Using two studies we show that the partisan perceptions people derive from seeing images of faces influence discrimination of job applicants, and propensities to engage is a wide range of social interactions. People appear to be making judgements about partisanship using only facial appearance, and are willing act on that perception. The implication of this finding is that partisan discrimination is likely widespread, and does not require the explicit communication of partisan affiliations.

2005-2017: 6% of Republicans and 4% of Democrats became entrepreneurs; Republicans increase their relative entrepreneurship during Republican administrations and decrease it during Democratic administrations

Partisan Entrepreneurship. Joseph Engelberg, Jorge Guzman, Runjing Lu & William Mullins. NBER Working Paper 30249.DOI 10.3386/w30249. July 2022. https://www.nber.org/papers/w30249

Abstract: Republicans start more firms than Democrats. In a sample of 40 million party-identified Americans between 2005 and 2017, we find that 6% of Republicans and 4% of Democrats become entrepreneurs. This partisan entrepreneurship gap is time-varying: Republicans increase their relative entrepreneurship during Republican administrations and decrease it during Democratic administrations, amounting to a partisan reallocation of 170,000 new firms over our 13-year sample. We find sharp changes in partisan entrepreneurship around the elections of President Obama and President Trump, and the strongest effects among the most politically active partisans: those that donate and vote.

From 2019... Mental time travel and counterfactual thought: 6-year-olds but few younger children can reason counterfactually about past events

A taxonomy of mental time travel and counterfactual thought: Insights from cognitive development. Shalini Gautam et al. Behavioural Brain Research, Volume 374, November 18 2019, 112108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112108

Abstract: Humans often engage in complex thought about the past, present, and future. They not only think about what did happen, is happening, and will happen, but also what did not happen, is not happening, and will not happen. Here we present an integrated taxonomy of mental time travel and counterfactual thought, in which event representations are assigned categorically distinct temporal locations (i.e., past, present, or future) and subjective propositional values (i.e., affirmed, negated, or uncertain). We review research on children’s developing abilities to generate and reason about event representations with these characteristics. We find that children’s development typically proceeds in three stages: (1) the capacity to imagine and reflect on affirmed and uncertain past, present, and future outcomes, (2) the capacity to imagine and reflect on counterfactual, negated versions of known past outcomes and present situations, and (3) the capacity to anticipate experiencing counterfactual emotions (i.e., regret and relief) in the future. This protracted developmental trajectory may be a function of increasing executive demands, increasing hierarchical complexity of temporal representations, or both.

Both sexes reacted less positively to research findings showing a sex difference favoring males rather than females, and they judged male-favoring research to be lower in quality and more harmful

Reactions to research on sex differences: Effect of sex favoured, researcher sex, and importance of sex-difference domain. Steve Stewart-Williams et al. British Journal of Psychology, July 18 2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12580

Abstract: Two studies (total N = 778) looked at (1) how people react to research finding a sex difference depending on whether the research puts men or women in a better light and (2) how well people can predict the average man and average woman's reactions. Participants read a fictional popular-science article about fictional research finding either a male- or a female-favouring sex difference. The research was credited to either a male or a female lead researcher. In both studies, both sexes reacted less positively to differences favouring males; in contrast to our earlier research, however, the effect was larger among female participants. Contrary to a widespread expectation, participants did not react less positively to research led by a female. Participants did react less positively, though, to research led by a male when the research reported a male-favouring difference in a highly valued trait. Participants judged male-favouring research to be lower in quality than female-favouring research, apparently in large part because they saw the former as more harmful. In both studies, participants predicted that the average man and woman would exhibit substantial own-sex favouritism, with both sexes predicting more own-sex favouritism from the other sex than the other sex predicted from itself. In making these predictions, participants overestimated women's own-sex favouritism, and got the direction of the effect wrong for men. A greater understanding of the tendency to overestimate gender-ingroup bias could help quell antagonisms between the sexes.

Almost everyone practices secret consumer behaviors at one time or another, consuming things/paying for services that they keep secret from those close to them; the guilt leads to greater relationship investment

Secret consumer behaviors in close relationships. Danielle J. Brick, Kelley Gullo Wight, Gavan J. Fitzsimons. Journal of Consumer Psychology, June 30 2022. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1315

Abstract: Although close relationships are often characterized by openness and disclosure, in the present research, we propose that there are times when individuals choose not to tell close others about their consumer behavior, keeping it a secret. For example, one partner may eat a candy bar on the way home from work, hide a package that was delivered to the house, or hire a cleaning service and not tell the other partner. We theorize that this type of consumer behavior is both common and mundane. That is, the consumption itself is minor—and has likely been done with the partner's knowledge in the past—but is being intentionally kept from the partner. We further investigate whether such behavior has downstream effects on the relationship, despite its mundaneness. Five studies support our conceptualization of secret consumer behaviors in close relationships and illustrate one consequence: guilt from secret consumption leads to greater relationship investment. This research explores a common, yet understudied, area of consumer behavior and highlights areas for future research. Thus, we contribute to the literature by being the first work to examine emotional, behavioral, and relational aspects of secret consumer behavior.

General Discussion

People commonly keep consumption a secret from close others. It tends to be mundane consumer behavior, but due to the nature of secrecy (i.e., intentional nondisclosure), it can have consequences for the relationship. By investigating the nature of secret consumer behaviors in relationships and examining emotional, behavioral, and relational outcomes, this research contributes to the literatures on close relationships (e.g., Brick & Fitzsimons, 2017; Caprariello & Reis, 2011; Finkel et al., 2015; Wight et al., 2022), social influences (e.g., Argo, 2020; Dzhogleva & Lamberton, 2014; McFerran et al., 2010; Ordabayeva & Chandon, 2011; Wood & Hayes, 2012), and secrecy in consumption (e.g., He et al., 2021; Rodas & John, 2020). This research also opens the door for future research to examine many more questions regarding the antecedents, methods, and consequences of secret consumer behavior (SCB) in close relationships. In the present research, we were agnostic as to why people keep SCBs, but future research should investigate relational motivations of SCBs. For example, one reason why an individual could choose to keep a SCB from a close other is to avoid a fight (e.g., secretly buying a shirt to avoid fighting about spending money). Another reason could be to help their partner (e.g., secretly eating candy in order to help their partner stick to their diet). In the shirt example, the person is keeping the secret for prevention reasons, and, in the candy example, the person is keeping the secret for promotion reasons (e.g., Regulatory Focus Theory; Higgins, 1998). Similarly, while we find that most people engage in SCB in close relationships, future research could examine antecedents to the tendency to do so. For example, consumers with a high need for independence may be more likely to engage in SCB, since it could give a sense of autonomy within an otherwise interconnected relationship. Another possibility is that attachment styles within a given relationship (Bowlby, 1982) affect the propensity to engage in SCB within that relationship. Those with a secure attachment to their relationship may ironically be more likely to keep SCBs as they may feel more confident that it would not threaten the relationship. In line with prior relational work (e.g., Slepian et al. 2017), we focused on the intent to conceal and were agnostic about the way in which the secret was kept. However, there are multiple ways in which individuals may keep a secret (e.g., omission, avoidance, lying; Thomas & Jewell, 2019). Future research could explore whether there are differences in relational outcomes depending upon the method for keeping the secret (e.g., lying may make the same SCB seem more severe than if it were kept via omission). Relatedly, we focused on relatively mundane consumer behaviors, but it is possible that some SCBs are more severe. In such cases, their relational outcomes may reflect the negative outcomes of the more severe general secrets that are typically studied in social psychology. While we do not find evidence of this in the current research (all interactions with how big of a deal the SCB is on both guilt and relationship investment are non-significant, p’s > .18), future research seems warranted. 

Additionally, while we focus on the effects of keeping SCBs (as opposed to disclosure), future research on confession seems warranted. Prior work has shown that confessing selfcontrol failures can affect subsequent self-control (Lowe & Haws, 2019); might confessing SCBs increase feelings of visibility and therefore decrease future secrecy? Could it bring people closer together? This reasoning opens questions about the potential relational effects of confessing SCBs depending upon to whom the secret is confessed: targets or non-targets. Future research could also examine other relational outcomes of SCB, such as relationship satisfaction or interpersonal goal pursuit. Individuals must navigate both inter- and intra-partner goals within close relationships, and sometimes the goals may not be aligned. For example, perhaps Partner A has a goal to lose weight, while Partner B does not. Would it be better for their relationship satisfaction, and perhaps for Partner A’s goal pursuit, if Partner B consumes pizza in secret? Research on invisible support (Bolger et al., 2000) suggests that it might, but future research should explore these questions. Finally, future research could explore other consequences for the partner from whom the SCB is kept. In a dyadic study of romantic partners’ spending on and satisfaction with Valentine’s Day, we found secret consumption can have positive downstream outcomes for the partner. Specifically, we found that Partner A’s guilt from engaging in SCB was associated with greater spending on Valentine’s Day for Partner B, and this, in turn, increased Partner B’s satisfaction with how Valentine’s Day went (see MDA for more information on this study). This provides initial evidence that SCB could have positive downstream consequences for the partner, but future research should explore this finding in more detail. In conclusion, the current work identifies secret consumer behavior as a common, but understudied, phenomenon in close relationships and demonstrates consequences of this behavior. We hope the current work will inspire researchers to pursue additional questions in this exciting area

Two decades of infidelity research through an intersectional lens -- Complaints of the intersectionists for not being able to analyze the subjects with a lens that includes "systems of" heterosexism, cissexism, classism in the many studies that lack enough data

“I’ve been cheated, been mistreated, when will I be loved”: Two decades of infidelity research through an intersectional lens. Dana A Weiser et al. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, July 6, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075221113032

Abstract: Infidelity is a common experience within romantic relationships and is closely linked with relationship dissolution and well-being. Using an intersectionality theoretical framework, we undertook a systematic review of the infidelity literature in flagship journals associated with the disciplines of the International Association for Relationship Research. Our review includes findings from 162 published empirical articles. We identified several themes within the infidelity literature, including: individual, interpersonal, and contextual predictors; outcomes and reactions; beliefs and attitudes; prevalence; and conceptualization. We also found that the infidelity literature primarily utilizes participants who are White, heterosexual, cisgender individuals who reside in the United States or Canada. Moreover, researchers were limited in information they provided about participants’ identities so in most articles it was difficult to assess many dimensions of identity. Ultimately, these findings limit our ability to apply an intersectional framework. We argue that researchers should extend the research they cite, collect richer demographic data, expand their samples (especially beyond White heterosexual cisgender American college students), and consider the sociohistorical context of their participants (e.g., the particular social circumstances and historical forces which shape individuals’ lived experiences). For example, scholars using an intersectional framework would explain their participants’ relationship experiences through a lens which includes systems of sexism, racism, heterosexism, cissexism, classism, etc., in conjunction with individual and interpersonal factors.

Keywords: Deception, infidelity, jealousy, sexuality

Recent evidence challenges long-standing views of male–female power relationships by showing that power ranges along a continuum from strictly male- to strictly female-dominated animal societies

The eco-evolutionary landscape of power relationships between males and females. Eve Davidian et al. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Volume 37, Issue 8, August 2022, Pages 706-718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2022.04.004

Highlights

Inequality in the degree of control (or ‘power’) that members of one sex exert over members of the other sex is a pervasive characteristic of mammalian societies, including our own.

The study of the drivers of male–female power relationships has been impeded by methodological limitations and a lack of conceptual embedding in theories of sexual conflict, sexual selection and social evolution.

Recent evidence challenges long-standing views by showing that (i) power ranges along a continuum from strictly male- to strictly female-dominated animal societies and (ii) intersexual power relationships are not fixed attributes of species.

Here we break with dichotomist and static approaches to adopt a dynamic, theory-driven framework that provides a better understanding of the power struggles between the sexes, and how these relate to the social and mating system of a species.

Abstract: In animal societies, control over resources and reproduction is often biased towards one sex. Yet, the ecological and evolutionary underpinnings of male–female power asymmetries remain poorly understood. We outline a comprehensive framework to quantify and predict the dynamics of male–female power relationships within and across mammalian species. We show that male–female power relationships are more nuanced and flexible than previously acknowledged. We then propose that enhanced reproductive control over when and with whom to mate predicts social empowerment across ecological and evolutionary contexts. The framework explains distinct pathways to sex-biased power: coercion and male-biased dimorphism constitute a co-evolutionary highway to male power, whereas female power emerges through multiple physiological, morphological, behavioural, and socioecological pathways.

Keywords: intersexual power inequalitysexual conflictsocial dominancesexual size dimorphismreproductive controlsocial evolution

Belief in Luck and Precognition Around the World

Belief in Luck and Precognition Around the World. Emily A. Harris, Taciano L. Milfont, Matthew J. Hornsey. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, July 14, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220221221110462

Abstract: Although magical beliefs (such as belief in luck and precognition) are presumably universal, the extent to which such beliefs are embraced likely varies across cultures. We assessed the effect of culture on luck and precognition beliefs in two large-scale multinational studies (Study 1: k = 16, N = 17,664; Study 2: k = 25, N = 4,024). Over and above the effects of demographic factors, culture was a significant predictor of luck and precognition beliefs in both studies. Indeed, when culture was added to demographic models, the variance accounted for in luck and precognition beliefs approximately doubled. Belief in luck and precognition was highest in Latvia and Russia (Study 1) and South Asia (Study 2), and lowest in Protestant Europe (Studies 1 and 2). Thus, beyond the effects of age, gender, education, and religiosity, culture is a significant factor in explaining variance in people’s belief in luck and precognition. Follow-up analyses found a relatively consistent effect of socio-economic development, such that belief in luck and precognition were more prevalent in countries with lower scores on the Human Development Index. There was also some evidence that these beliefs were stronger in more collectivist cultures, but this effect was inconsistent. We discuss the possibility that there are culturally specific historical factors that contribute to relative openness to such beliefs in Russia, Latvia, and South Asia.

Keywords: magical beliefs, luck, precognition, cross-cultural, multi-national

h/t: Tyler Cowen Belief in Luck and Precognition Around the World - Marginal REVOLUTION

Conflicts and son preference: Micro-level evidence from 58 countries show that both incidence and intensity of conflict exposure are associated with greater son preference leading to higher prevalence of sons over daughter

Conflicts and son preference: Micro-level evidence from 58 countries. SrinivasGoliad et al. Economics & Human Biology, Volume 46, August 2022, 101146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2022.101146

Highlights

• This article tests the association between conflict and son preference using a sample of 1.1 million individuals from 58 countries over the period 2003–2018.

• We show that both incidence and intensity of conflict exposure are associated with greater son preference leading to higher prevalence of sons over daughters.

• Macro-data analysis shows that history of conflict exposure plays an important role in explaining the cross-country differences in sex ratios.

Abstract: Research on the association between armed conflict and son preference has largely been based on single-country studies, often presenting descriptive patterns. This paper empirically analyzes the association between conflict and son preference using a sample of more than 1.1 million individuals from 58 countries over the period 2003–2018. We empirically show that both the incidence and intensity of conflict exposure are associated with greater son preference. Moreover, conflict-exposed individuals are likely to realise their preference for sons, as reflected in the systematically higher prevalence of sons over daughters among these individuals. To explore the aggregate effects of these findings, we conduct a cross-country analysis of sex ratios and show that history of conflict exposure plays an important role in explaining the cross-country differences in sex ratios.

Keywords: ConflictSon preferenceSex ratio at birthSex ratio at last birthChild sex ratios

Receiving mate poaching attempts decreased the appeal of current partners while increasing the desirability of alternatives

Temptation at your door: Receiving mate poaching attempts and perceived Partners' desirability. Gurit E. Birnbaum. Personal Relationships, July 12 2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12433

Abstract: Committed individuals cope with the threat of alternative partners by using strategies that undermine their allure. However, in an era, in which alternative mates lurk around every corner, these strategies may lose their effectiveness. Two studies investigated this possibility, examining how being the target of online mate poaching influenced perceptions of current and alternative partners. In both studies, partnered undergraduate students chatted online with a confederate of the other sex who behaved either flirtatiously or neutrally. Then, participants completed a measure of implicit perception of their partner (Study 1) or described a sexual fantasy (Study 2). The fantasies were coded for expressions of desire for current and alternative partners. Results showed that receiving mate poaching attempts decreased the appeal of current partners while increasing the desirability of alternatives. These findings demonstrate the circumstances that weaken resistance to temptations, pointing to a route by which online interactions may impair relationship functioning.

6 GENERAL DISCUSSION

With offspring dependence on biparental caregiving, both men and women evolved to form long-term pair bonds (Eastwick, 2009 Fletcher et al., 2015) that are commonly intended to be monogamous (Anderson, 2010 Conley et al., 2013). The hegemony of monogamy, however, cannot carry the promise of fidelity. The growing demand for applications that facilitate extradyadic affairs (Finkel et al., 2012 Vossler, 2016) indeed demonstrates that sex is often sought outside of what is considered a committed relationship (e.g., Allen et al., 2005 Blow & Hartnett, 2005). Whereas most prior studies have focused on partner and relationship factors that make both online and offline infidelity more likely (see Fincham & May, 2017; Vossler, 2016, for reviews), the present research turns the spotlight on the characteristics of the alternatives that lessen people's ability to resist their allure.

Two studies show that receiving online mate poaching attempts from attractive poachers (versus engaging in a neutral interaction with them) can render romantically involved individuals more vulnerable to infidelity. Study 1 indicated that being the target of mate poaching led participants to view their current partners in a more negative light and to desire them less, as expressed both implicitly and explicitly. Study 2 replicated these findings and extended them, revealing that being the target of mate poaching not only decreased the appeal of current partners but also increased the desirability of alternative mates. Study 2 also spoke to the process by which active mate poaching attempts might weaken partnered individuals' motivation to defend their current relationship. Specifically, being actively courted by attractive mate poachers apparently interfered with the strategy of devaluation of attractive alternatives, which, in turn, further unleased extradyadic desires, at least as manifested in sexual fantasies.

The internet presents endless opportunities for personal and interpersonal growth, such as connecting people all over the globe and improving access to education. However, with these opportunities come challenges that may impair personal and relationship well-being, such as coping with addiction and distraction. The present research demonstrates the destructive potential of the internet for relationship functioning, showing how temptations in the interpersonal domain jeopardize existing romantic relationships. Past studies have already found that spending time on social media may harm existing relationships, as it offers an easy route to behaviors that often lead to jealousy, dissatisfaction, and even breakups (e.g., communicating with alternative partners and engaging in cybersex; Clayton et al., 2013; McDaniel et al., 2017). The present research adds to these studies by focusing on what it is that makes alternative partners difficult to resist, indicating that good looks in and of itself may not encourage infidelity. Rather, active courting attempts are required in order to penetrate through the shield of relationship maintenance strategies and undermine partnered individuals' ability to resist the allure of alternative mates.

Overall, the present research firms up a causal connection between receiving mate poaching attempts and experiencing extradyadic desires, shedding light on when and how interacting online with attractive strangers provides the extra push needed to pursue short-term pleasures rather than the long-term goal of relationship maintenance. And yet, the present results should be interpreted with a degree of caution as overt behavioral expressions of desire, such as engagement in offline involvement, were not assessed. It is therefore unclear whether the effect of receiving mate poaching attempts on the desire for current and alternative partners would translate into actual behavior. To be sure, partnered individuals who interact online with strangers and fantasize about them do not necessarily wish to act out their fantasies, either because it is too risky (e.g., Critelli & Bivona, 2008) or because fantasizing is rewarding in and of itself (Birnbaum, Kanat-Maymon, et al., 2019).

Another limitation of the present research is that it involved brief interactions in an artificial laboratory setting. Thus, it is unclear whether the effect of mate poaching on extradyadic desires would apply in complex natural settings, which make the potential costs of infidelity more difficult to handle. Furthermore, although Study 2 indicates the process by which mate poaching influences the desire for alternatives, it cannot tell whether mate poaching renders poachers more desirable because they seem bold or because targets of poaching like those who make them feel valued. It would be therefore revealing to explore whether the effect of mate poaching on the desirability of the poacher would be observed when an unattractive (rather than an attractive) poacher flirts with participants, possibly making them feel less valued, compared to a condition in which participants receive mate poaching attempts from an attractive poacher. On the whole, more research is needed to explore the long-term outcomes of online mate poaching in more natural settings, examining whether and why it is effective in motivating the targets to form relationships with poachers in the real world.

Notwithstanding these caveats, the present research demonstrates the circumstances that weaken resistance to temptations of alternative partners, pointing to a route by which online interactions may diminish relationship well-being and lead to offline affairs. In doing so, the findings underscore the need to identify couples who are especially susceptible to temptations of attractive alternatives so that they may receive appropriate counseling. Such counseling should focus on the enhancement of appetitive processes, which have proven effective in instigating sexual desire between partners and helping them prioritize the goal of relationship maintenance (e.g., provision of responsiveness and making one's partner feel special; Birnbaum, 2018; Birnbaum et al., 2016, 2021).

Psychopathic traits (primarily those linked to meanness and disinhibition) were associated with improved psychiatric functioning and fewer posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms

Batastini, A. B., Lester, M. E., Poindexter, E., & Bozeman, A. R. (2022). Trauma, psychopathic traits, and mental health outcomes: A propensity score matching approach between service member and civilian samples. Traumatology, Jul 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000396

Abstract: A large body of research has been dedicated to examining the antecedents, determinants, and consequences of trauma exposure, particular among those who have served in the U.S. armed forces. Emerging research suggests that psychopathic traits may play a protective role. Yet, no known studies have examined the relationships between trauma exposure, components of psychopathy, posttraumatic symptoms, general mental health, and suicidal ideation. In addition, few studies directly compare military- and nonmilitary-experienced participants. Using propensity score matching, 114 participants (57 military and 57 civilian) were statistically matched based on age, race, and gender. Reported trauma exposure was associated with poorer general psychiatric functioning and increased posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms but was unrelated to historical suicidal ideation. Conversely, psychopathic traits were associated with improved psychiatric functioning and fewer posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms; however, certain facets of psychopathy (primarily those associated with meanness and disinhibition) were the most protective. Military status did not enhance the relationships between trauma exposure and adverse outcomes. Clinical implications, study limitations, and research initiatives aimed at better understanding the nuances of trauma-related responses and mental health are discussed. Identifying which risk and protective factors are unique (or not) to service members can inform the need for tailored interventions.

In contrast to young children, monkeys are unable to perceive illusory faces in inanimate objects

Flessert, M., Taubert, J., & Beran, M. J. (2022). Assessing the perception of face pareidolia in children (Homo sapiens), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella). Journal of Comparative Psychology, Jul 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000320

Abstract: Face pareidolia is the misperception of a face in an inanimate object and is a common feature of the face detection system in humans. Whereas there are many similarities in how humans and nonhuman animals such as monkeys perceive and respond to faces, it is still unclear whether other species also perceive certain nonface stimuli as faces. We presented a novel computerized task to capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and preschool-aged children (Homo sapiens). This task trained subjects to choose faces over nonface images, and then presented pareidolia images with nonface images. All species selected faces most often on trials that included face images. However, only children selected pareidolia images at levels above chance. These results indicate that while children report perceiving face pareidolia, monkeys do not. These species differences could be due to human-unique experiences that result in an increased aptitude for anthropomorphizing objects with face-like patterns. It could also be due to monkeys showing a greater reliance on stimulus features rather than global, holistically organized cues that faces provide. 

Quantitative Political Science Research is Greatly Underpowered; most methodologists greatly overestimate the statistical power of political science research

Quantitative Political Science Research is Greatly Underpowered. Vincent Arel-Bundock et al. Jul 5 2022. https://osf.io/hsgkp

Abstract: We analyze the statistical power of political science research by collating over 16,000 hypothesis tests from about 2,000 articles. Even with generous assumptions, the median analysis has about 10% power, and only about 1 in 10 tests have at least 80% power to detect the consensus effects reported in the literature. There is also substantial heterogeneity in tests across research areas, with some being characterized by high-power but most having very low power. To contextualize our findings, we survey political methodologists to assess their expectations about power levels. Most methodologists greatly overestimate the statistical power of political science research.

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On average, political methodologists believe that 66% of studies have at least50% power, and 43% have at least 80% power. We demonstrate that these areoverly optimistic estimations. On average, experts overestimate the share ofstudies powered at the 50% level by 48 percentage points, and the share of studiespowered at the 80% level by 32 percentage points. Political science researchsuffers from low power and this problem is not sufficiently appreciated.

We, especially those in high quality relationships, respond positively to being outperformed by our romantic partner. Reasons: greater empathy; relationship as a source of self-affirmation; finding partner's success beneficial for oneself

Thai, Sabrina. 2022. “Comparing You, Me, and Us: Social Comparisons in the Context of Close Relationships.” PsyArXiv. July 14. doi:10.31234/osf.io/bycrw

Abstract: Social comparisons in the context of close relationships occur often in daily life. Yet, limited research has examined the various types of comparisons that can occur in relationships and the interpersonal consequences of these comparisons. I first describe the types of comparisons individuals can make in close relationships (between themselves and a close other, between their relationship and another, and between a close other and another person) and the interpersonal consequences of these comparisons. I then discuss how examining comparisons in close relationships leads to new ways of thinking about social comparisons: Comparisons have a greater reach than previously thought (dyadic and cumulative longitudinal effects of comparisons), they are more complex than simply comparing the self to others, and they influence relationship outcomes and reveal processes that have not yet been examined. These new insights and directions demonstrate how this intrapersonal process has important interpersonal consequences.

Face-to-face sex positions are more likely to stimulate the clitoris, especially when the woman is above

Coital positions and clitoral blood flow: A biomechanical and sonographic analysis. K. Lovie, A. Marashi. Sexologies, July 5 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sexol.2022.04.007

Summary

Objective: To create biomechanical models of five common coital positions, and evaluate the degree of contact and forces against the clitoris. To evaluate clitoral blood flow before and after engaging in these positions.

Methods: Biomechanical models were rendered of a male and female pelvis in the following coital positions: face-to-face/female above, sitting/face-to-face, face-to-face/male above (with and without pillow), and kneeling/rear entry. The thrusting force and gravitational force were estimated for the pelvis(es) providing the main forces. The areas of contact between the pelvises were identified and highlighted. Sonography of the clitoris was performed before and after a healthy volunteer couple engaged in each position, using a Philips Lumify™ ultrasound (Koninklijke Philips N.V., Amsterdam, Netherlands) with a L12-4 linear array transducer (4–12 MHz).

Results: The biomechanical models for each position, with the exception of kneeling/rear entry, reveal a large amount of contact with the clitoris. Clitoral blood flow increased after engaging in each position except for kneeling/rear entry. Positions in which the gravitational force of the thrusting partner was in the same direction of (and thereby augmenting) the thrusting force resulted in intense clitoral blood flow (face-to-face/female above, and face-to-face/male above). Augmenting the face-to-face/male above position with a pillow generated a component of the male pelvic gravitational force in the direction of the clitoris; this resulted in more blood flow to all components of the cavernous body.

Conclusion: From a biomechanical perspective, different coital positions vary in their potential to stimulate the clitoris. These positions lead to variable increases in clitoral blood flow, concordant with our biomechanical models.

Keywords: ClitorisBiomechanicsSexual positionsSonography

Caring for children makes people all over the world more conservative, and most of the association between age and social conservatism is accounted for by parenthood

Kerry, Nicholas, Damian Murray, Laith Al-Shawaf, Carlota Batres, Khandis Blake, Youngjae Cha, Zoran Pavlović, et al. 2022. “Parenthood and Parental Care Motives Are Associated with Increased Social Conservatism: Experimental and Cross-cultural Evidence.” PsyArXiv. July 13. doi:10.31234/osf.io/d3fg2

Abstract: Differences in attitudes on social issues such as abortion, immigration, and sex are hugely divisive, and understanding their origins is among the most important tasks facing human behavioural sciences. Despite the clear psychological importance of parenthood and the motivation to provide care for children, researchers have only recently begun investigating their influence on social and political attitudes. Because socially conservative values ostensibly prioritize safety, stability, and family values, we hypothesized that being more invested in parental care might make socially conservative policies more appealing. Studies 1 (pre-registered; n=376) and 2 (n=1,913) find novel evidence of conditional experimental effects of a parenthood prime, such that people who engaged strongly with a childcare manipulation showed an increase in social conservatism. Study 2 also finds evidence that this effect is mediated by increases in parental care motivation. Study 3 (n=2,610, novel data from 10 countries) and 4 (n=426,444, World Values Survey data) find evidence that both parenthood and parental care motivation are associated with increased social conservatism around the globe. Further, most of the positive association globally between age and social conservatism is accounted for by parenthood. These findings support the hypothesis that parenthood and parental care motivation increase social conservatism.

People intuitively prefer invisible-hand explanations of social phenomena over explanations that resort to intended goals

Jonušaitė, Izabelė, and Tomer D. Ullman. 2022. “The Invisible Hand as an Intuitive Sociological Explanation.” PsyArXiv. July 13. doi:10.31234/osf.io/p374w

Abstract: The invisible hand is a type of explanation, often used in the social sciences and economics. An invisible-hand explanation accounts for a state of affairs as the emergent outcome of individual actions, without the individuals intending the explained phenomenon. Invisible-hand explanations have been used in formal settings to account for a variety of phenomena, from segregation to traffic norms. But, they have not been studied cognitively and empirically as an intuitive explanation type. Here, we propose and show that people intuitively prefer invisible-hand explanations over intentional-design explanations. We first establish that given pairs of explanations are equally likely to cause a social phenomenon (equal likelihood ratio). We then show that in a paired hypothesis question, people prefer an invisible-hand to an intentional-design explanation (posterior odds favor invisible hand). Given this, we conclude that people have a prior preference for invisible-hand explanations. We additionally examine individual differences in this prior preference, showing a small-but-significant relationship between a preference for intentional-design explanations, and conspiratorial beliefs.

Philosophers have long debated whether moral virtue is necessary for happiness, or whether morality and happiness are incompatible. Yet, little empirical research addresses this fundamental question: Are moral people happier?

Sun, Jessie, Wen Wu, and Geoffrey Goodwin. 2022. “Moral People Tend to Be Happier.” PsyArXiv. July 13. doi:10.31234/osf.io/sd8t4

Abstract: Philosophers have long debated whether moral virtue is necessary for happiness, or whether morality and happiness are incompatible. Yet, little empirical research addresses this fundamental question: Are moral people happier? Here, we examined the association between reputation-based measures of moral character and self-reported well-being in the U.S. and China. Three studies suggest that those who are more moral in the eyes of close others (e.g., friends, family, romantic partners; Studies 1 and 3), coworkers (Study 2), and acquaintances (Study 3) generally experience a greater sense of subjective well-being and meaning in life. Together, these studies provide the most comprehensive evidence to date of a positive association between morality and well-being.

Discussion

In sum, the results of three studies provide evidence for a robust and general positive association between moral character and well-being. These studies represent the most comprehensive investigation to date of this longstanding question about the relation between two fundamental aspects of the good life. However, given the scope of the question and the complexity of conceptualizing and measuring morality, our investigation is far from the last word on whether moral people are happier. Although reputation-based measures of morality have substantial advantages over both self-report and behavioral measures, they have their own limitations.

First, by definition, reputation-based measures of moral character only allow us to draw conclusions about the wellbeing implications of being visibly (im)moral (26, 28). How significant a limitation this is depends on how successfully people can actually hide their immoral traits and behaviors from others. We suspect that while people may be able to conceal some specific immoral behaviors (29), it is a much harder task to permanently conceal one’s genuinely immoral character. If this is true, then reputation-based measures of moral character, particularly when drawn from multiple sources, are unlikely to be substantially distorted in this respect. 

A second potential limitation of reputation-based measures is that moral character judgments could be tainted by irrelevant information. For example, it is plausible that people might use how much they like a person as a heuristic for whether that person is morally good.

However, supplemental analyses suggested that the association between moral character and well-being tended to be robust even when accounting for how much the targets’ informants liked them (see Table S29). Moreover, given that experimental evidence suggests that positive moral character information causally increases perceivers’ overall positive impressions of a hypothetical target (13), the extent to which a perceiver likes a target could be a mechanism that explains why moral people are happier, rather than a confound. Due to the correlational nature of our study designs, the findings of all three studies are causally ambiguous. However, given the paucity of research on this important question, and the difficulty of manipulating morality, our primary goal was to provide a thorough description of the direction, functional form, and specificity of the association between morality and well- being. After all, before we can attempt to explain a phenomenon, it is important to “know the thing we are trying to explain” (30, 31).

Nevertheless, we conducted additional analyses to rule out possible demographic confounds (e.g., age, gender, race, SES, and religiosity). The results of Studies 1 and 2 were generally robust to the inclusion of these control variables, but the results for Study 3 were inconclusive due to the large amounts of missing demographic data (see Table 40 S31). Finally, the question of whether moral people are happier may depend in part on what range of morality is being considered and how morality is conceptualized. Although we made efforts to sample from across the spectrum of moral character, we were unable to sample targets who were either extremely moral or extremely immoral (see Supplemental Materials, Table 45 S28). Nonetheless, our results do indicate that within the normal range of moral functioning inhabited by the large majority of people, people who are more moral are happier than people who are less moral. 6 Morality is notoriously difficult to define; indeed, centuries of philosophical theorizing have not yet resulted in widespread convergence on what it means to be a moral person (32).

We intentionally conceptualized morality in a very broad and ecologically valid way, with a definition that spanned multiple different aspects of moral character that are relevant to everyday social life. It therefore remains possible that the relation we observed may not hold if moral goodness is conceptualized more narrowly (e.g., as constituted by utilitarian attitudes, or a more expansive moral circle; 33, 34). Our results provisionally speak against this possibility, however, since we did not see different relations between two major dimensions of morality (i.e., kindness and integrity) and well-being (see Supplemental Materials, Table S23). Nonetheless, future work might document more distinct connections between other varieties of morality and well-being. Despite these caveats, the research presented here breaks new ground by providing the strongest evidence to date of a positive association between morality and well-being in the U.S. and China. Our findings are incompatible with the idea that a moral life is characterized by onerous self-sacrifice; instead, morality and personal fulfilment seem to go hand in hand