Ultra-black Camouflage in Deep-Sea Fishes. Alexander L. Davis, Kate N. Thomas, Freya E. Goetz, Bruce H. Robison, Sonke Johnsen, Karen J. Osborn. Current Biology 30, 1–7, September 7, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/%20j.cub.2020.06.044
Highlights
* Reflected bioluminescence can reveal deep-sea animals to predators or prey
* At least 16 species of deep-sea fishes have ultra-black skin (<0.5% reflectance)
* Fish achieve low reflectance using a continuous layer of melanosomes in the skin
* The size and shape of these melanosomes are optimal for reducing reflectance
Summary: At oceanic depths >200 m, there is little ambient sunlight, but bioluminescent organisms provide another lightsource that can reveal animals to visual predators and prey [1–4]. Transparency and mirrored surfaces—common camouflage strategies under the diffuse solar illumination of shallower waters—are conspicuous when illuminated by directed bioluminescent sources due to reflection from the body surface [5, 6]. Pigmentation allows animals to absorb light from bioluminescent sources, rendering them visually undetectable against the dark background of the deep sea [5]. We present evidence suggesting pressure to reduce reflected bioluminescence led to the evolution of ultra-black skin (reflectance <0.5%) in 16 species of deep-sea fishes across seven distantly related orders. Histological data suggest this low reflectance is mediated by a continuous layer of densely packed melanosomes in the exterior-most layer of the dermis [7, 8] and that this layer lacks the unpigmented gaps between pigment cells found in other darkly colored fishes [9–13]. Using finite-difference, time-domain modeling and comparisons with melanosomes found in other ectothermic vertebrates [11, 13–21], we find the melanosomes making up the layer in these ultra-black species are optimized in size and shape to minimize reflectance. Low reflectance results from melanosomes scattering light within the layer, increasing the optical path length and therefore light absorption by the melanin. By reducing reflectance, ultra-black fish can reduce the sighting distance of visual predators more than 6-fold compared to fish with 2% reflectance. This biological example of efficient light absorption via a simple architecture of strongly absorbing and highly scattering particles may inspire new ultra-black materials.
Friday, July 17, 2020
Negative relationship quality, notably, criticism received from one’s spouse or partner, heightens older adults’ risk of mortality
Bookwala, J., & Gaugler, T. (2020). Relationship quality and 5-year mortality risk. Health Psychology, 39(8), 633–641. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000883
Abstract
Objective: The present study examined positive and negative aspects of relationship quality with one’s spouse or partner as predictors of mortality and the role of gender in moderating this link.
Method: Data were drawn from 2 waves, 5 years apart, of the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project (N = 1,734). Positive aspects of relationship quality (frequency of opening up to the partner to talk about worries and relying on the partner) and negative aspects (frequency of the partner making too many demands and criticism by the partner) were assessed. Survival/mortality status was recorded at the time of Wave 2 data collection 5 years later (1,567 alive; 167 deceased). Covariates included sociodemographic variables, relationship type, health status, and the network size of close family relationships and friendships.
Results: Logistic regression analyses showed that negative relationship quality with one’s spouse or partner was associated with significantly higher odds for mortality after 5 years (odds ratio [OR] = 1.20, 95% CI [1.03, 1.38], p < .001), after including the statistical covariates. Also, age, gender, education, self-rated health, and medication use were significantly related to mortality. Propensity score matching replicated these findings. Follow-up analyses revealed that criticism from one’s spouse or partner, in particular, was linked to a higher mortality risk (OR = 1.44, 95% CI [1.10, 1.88]). Gender did not moderate the relationship-quality–mortality link.
Conclusions: Negative relationship quality, notably, criticism received from one’s spouse or partner, heightens older adults’ risk of mortality. These results suggest the value of developing interventions that target reducing expressed criticism in couple relationships.
Abstract
Objective: The present study examined positive and negative aspects of relationship quality with one’s spouse or partner as predictors of mortality and the role of gender in moderating this link.
Method: Data were drawn from 2 waves, 5 years apart, of the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project (N = 1,734). Positive aspects of relationship quality (frequency of opening up to the partner to talk about worries and relying on the partner) and negative aspects (frequency of the partner making too many demands and criticism by the partner) were assessed. Survival/mortality status was recorded at the time of Wave 2 data collection 5 years later (1,567 alive; 167 deceased). Covariates included sociodemographic variables, relationship type, health status, and the network size of close family relationships and friendships.
Results: Logistic regression analyses showed that negative relationship quality with one’s spouse or partner was associated with significantly higher odds for mortality after 5 years (odds ratio [OR] = 1.20, 95% CI [1.03, 1.38], p < .001), after including the statistical covariates. Also, age, gender, education, self-rated health, and medication use were significantly related to mortality. Propensity score matching replicated these findings. Follow-up analyses revealed that criticism from one’s spouse or partner, in particular, was linked to a higher mortality risk (OR = 1.44, 95% CI [1.10, 1.88]). Gender did not moderate the relationship-quality–mortality link.
Conclusions: Negative relationship quality, notably, criticism received from one’s spouse or partner, heightens older adults’ risk of mortality. These results suggest the value of developing interventions that target reducing expressed criticism in couple relationships.
Individuals who moved in with a partner/got married/separated from a partner primarily experienced changes in openness in the first year; & those who separated from a partner/got divorced became less emotionally stable
Asselmann, E., & Specht, J. (2020). Taking the ups and downs at the rollercoaster of love: Associations between major life events in the domain of romantic relationships and the Big Five personality traits. Developmental Psychology, Jul 2020. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001047
Abstract: Personality predicts how we interact with others, what partners we have, and how happy and lasting our romantic relationships are. At the same time, our experiences in these relationships may affect our personality. Who experiences specific major relationship events, and how do these events relate to personality development? We examined this issue based on data from a nationally representative household panel study from Germany (N = 49,932). In this study, the occurrence of major relationship events (moving in with a partner, marriage, separation, and divorce) was assessed yearly, and the Big Five personality traits were measured repeatedly in 2005, 2009, 2013, and 2017 with the short version of the Big Five Inventory. We applied multilevel analyses to simultaneously model selection effects as well as different types of personality changes in the years before and after these events in the total sample and separately in women and men. Our findings revealed that less agreeable individuals were more likely to experience each of the examined relationship events. Moreover, each event was associated with personality changes, which only occurred after (not before) these events and considerably varied by event and gender. Individuals who moved in with a partner, got married, or separated from a partner primarily experienced changes in openness in the first year thereafter, and individuals who separated from a partner or got divorced became less emotionally stable in the following years. However, there was little evidence for “maturation” effects, except that individuals who moved in with a partner (especially men) became more conscientious in the following years.
Abstract: Personality predicts how we interact with others, what partners we have, and how happy and lasting our romantic relationships are. At the same time, our experiences in these relationships may affect our personality. Who experiences specific major relationship events, and how do these events relate to personality development? We examined this issue based on data from a nationally representative household panel study from Germany (N = 49,932). In this study, the occurrence of major relationship events (moving in with a partner, marriage, separation, and divorce) was assessed yearly, and the Big Five personality traits were measured repeatedly in 2005, 2009, 2013, and 2017 with the short version of the Big Five Inventory. We applied multilevel analyses to simultaneously model selection effects as well as different types of personality changes in the years before and after these events in the total sample and separately in women and men. Our findings revealed that less agreeable individuals were more likely to experience each of the examined relationship events. Moreover, each event was associated with personality changes, which only occurred after (not before) these events and considerably varied by event and gender. Individuals who moved in with a partner, got married, or separated from a partner primarily experienced changes in openness in the first year thereafter, and individuals who separated from a partner or got divorced became less emotionally stable in the following years. However, there was little evidence for “maturation” effects, except that individuals who moved in with a partner (especially men) became more conscientious in the following years.
Ordinary citizens increasingly moderate online forums, blogs, & social media feeds, selectively removing opposing political viewpoints from online contexts even when opposing comments were inoffensive & courteous
Ashokkumar, Ashwini, Sanaz Talaifar, William T. Fraser, Rodrigo Landabur, Michael Burhmester, Ángel Gómez, Borja Paredes, et al. 2020. “Censoring Political Opposition Online: Who Does It and Why.” PsyArXiv. July 16. doi:10.31234/osf.io/r9c5z
Abstract: As ordinary citizens increasingly moderate online forums, blogs, and their own social media feeds, a new type of censoring has emerged wherein people selectively remove opposing political viewpoints from online contexts. In three studies of behavior on putative online forums, supporters of a political cause (e.g., abortion or gun rights) preferentially censored comments that opposed their cause. The tendency to selectively censor cause-incongruent online content was amplified among people whose cause-related beliefs were deeply rooted in or “fused with” their identities. Moreover, six additional identity-related measures also amplified the selective censoring effect. Finally, selective censoring emerged even when opposing comments were inoffensive and courteous. We suggest that because online censorship enacted by moderators can skew online content consumed by millions of users, it can systematically disrupt democratic dialogue and subvert social harmony.
Abstract: As ordinary citizens increasingly moderate online forums, blogs, and their own social media feeds, a new type of censoring has emerged wherein people selectively remove opposing political viewpoints from online contexts. In three studies of behavior on putative online forums, supporters of a political cause (e.g., abortion or gun rights) preferentially censored comments that opposed their cause. The tendency to selectively censor cause-incongruent online content was amplified among people whose cause-related beliefs were deeply rooted in or “fused with” their identities. Moreover, six additional identity-related measures also amplified the selective censoring effect. Finally, selective censoring emerged even when opposing comments were inoffensive and courteous. We suggest that because online censorship enacted by moderators can skew online content consumed by millions of users, it can systematically disrupt democratic dialogue and subvert social harmony.
Physical Exercise Increases Perceived Musical Pleasure: Modulatory Roles of Arousal, Mood, or Dopamine?
Hove, Michael J., Steven A. Martinez, and Samantha R. Shorrock. 2020. “Physical Exercise Increases Perceived Musical Pleasure: Modulatory Roles of Arousal, Mood, or Dopamine?” PsyArXiv. July 16. doi:10.31234/osf.io/gy6qd
Abstract: Music’s ability to influence exercise performance is well known, but the converse, how exercise influences music listening, remains largely unknown. Exercise can elevate arousal, mood, and neurotransmitters including dopamine, which are involved in musical pleasure. Here we examine how exercise influences music enjoyment, and test for a modulatory role of arousal, mood, and dopamine. Before and after exercise (12 min of vigorous running) and a rest control session, participants (n=20) listened to music clips and rated their enjoyment and subjective arousal; we also collected mood ratings and eye-blink rates, an established predictor of dopamine activity. Ratings of musical enjoyment increased significantly after running, but not after the rest control condition. While changes in subjective arousal ratings did not differ between run and rest days, change in subjective arousal correlated with change in music enjoyment. After running, the change in music enjoyment had a positive but non-significant correlation with change in eye- blink rates (r=.36). Positive mood increased more after exercise than after the rest control session, but the change in positive mood did not correlate with change in music enjoyment. In sum, exercise leads to increased musical pleasure, and this effect was related to changes in arousal.
Abstract: Music’s ability to influence exercise performance is well known, but the converse, how exercise influences music listening, remains largely unknown. Exercise can elevate arousal, mood, and neurotransmitters including dopamine, which are involved in musical pleasure. Here we examine how exercise influences music enjoyment, and test for a modulatory role of arousal, mood, and dopamine. Before and after exercise (12 min of vigorous running) and a rest control session, participants (n=20) listened to music clips and rated their enjoyment and subjective arousal; we also collected mood ratings and eye-blink rates, an established predictor of dopamine activity. Ratings of musical enjoyment increased significantly after running, but not after the rest control condition. While changes in subjective arousal ratings did not differ between run and rest days, change in subjective arousal correlated with change in music enjoyment. After running, the change in music enjoyment had a positive but non-significant correlation with change in eye- blink rates (r=.36). Positive mood increased more after exercise than after the rest control session, but the change in positive mood did not correlate with change in music enjoyment. In sum, exercise leads to increased musical pleasure, and this effect was related to changes in arousal.
The development and use of highly reliable and valid facial grimace scales for pain measurement in animals: Grimace scales to measure pain now exist for 10 species
The development and use of facial grimace scales for pain measurement in animals. Jeffrey S.Mogil et al. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, July 16 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.013
Highlights
• Grimace scales were developed based on pain scales measuring facial expression in human neonates.
• Grimace scales to measure pain now exist for 10 species.
• Grimace scales have high reliability and validity, but can be affected by a number of modulatory factors.
ABSTRACT: The measurement of pain in animals is surprisingly complex, and remains a critical issue in veterinary care and biomedical research. Based on the known utility of pain measurement via facial expression in verbal and especially non-verbal human populations, “grimace scales” were first developed a decade ago for use in rodents and now exist for 10 different mammalian species. This review details the background context, historical development, features (including duration), psychometric properties, modulatory factors, and impact of animal grimace scales for pain.
Keywords: grimacePainfacial expressionveterinaryPreclinical
Highlights
• Grimace scales were developed based on pain scales measuring facial expression in human neonates.
• Grimace scales to measure pain now exist for 10 species.
• Grimace scales have high reliability and validity, but can be affected by a number of modulatory factors.
ABSTRACT: The measurement of pain in animals is surprisingly complex, and remains a critical issue in veterinary care and biomedical research. Based on the known utility of pain measurement via facial expression in verbal and especially non-verbal human populations, “grimace scales” were first developed a decade ago for use in rodents and now exist for 10 different mammalian species. This review details the background context, historical development, features (including duration), psychometric properties, modulatory factors, and impact of animal grimace scales for pain.
Keywords: grimacePainfacial expressionveterinaryPreclinical
Thursday, July 16, 2020
Average-Size Erect Penis: Fiction, Fact, and the Need for Counseling
Average-Size Erect Penis: Fiction, Fact, and the Need for Counseling. Bruce M. King. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, Jul 15 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2020.1787279
Abstract
Most men believe that the average length of an erect penis is greater than 6 inches (15.24 cm). This belief is due, in part, to several often-cited studies that relied on self-reported measurements, with means of about 6.2 inches (15.75 cm) for heterosexual men and even greater for gay men. These studies suffered from both volunteer bias and social desirability bias. In this review, the combined mean for 10 studies in which researchers took measurements of erect penises was 5.36 inches (13.61 cm; n = 1,629). For 21 studies in which researchers measured stretched penises, the mean was approximately 5.11 inches (12.98 cm; n = 13,719). Based on these studies, the average length of an erect penis is between 5.1 and 5.5 inches (12.95–13.97 cm), but after taking volunteer bias into account, it is probably toward the lower end of this range. Studies show that a majority of men wish they were larger, with some choosing penile lengthening surgery. These surgeries are considered by the American Urological Association to be risky. Most men seeking surgery have normal sized penises. Counseling with factual information about penis size might be effective in alleviating concerns for the majority of men who worry about having a small penis.
Studies find that many men have concerns that their penis is not large enough and that they are smaller relative to other men (Johnston, McLellan, & McKinlay, 2014; Lee, 1996; Lever, Frederick, & Peplau, 2006; Morrison, Bearden, Ellis, & Harriman, 2005; Tiggemann, Martins, & Churchett, 2008). They equate penis size with sexual competence and masculinity (Morrison et al., 2005; Tiggemann et al., 2008; Wylie & Eardley, 2007). As a result, 45–68.3% of men wish they had a larger penis (Lever et al., 2006; Tiggemann et al., 2008). Most men believe that the average erect penis is over 6 inches (15.24 cm) in length, and for many their ideal penis length is considerably longer than that (Johnston et al., 2014).
This paper reviews all known studies of measurements of erect or stretched penis length. The review includes 10 studies that relied on self-reported measurements, 11 studies in which researchers measured erect penises, and 22 studies in which researchers measured stretched penises (see Table 1). Only studies of abnormalities of the penis, or of children, were excluded. The purpose of not excluding other studies is two-fold: (1) to point out the methodological flaws in many studies that contributed to men’s false beliefs that the average-size erect penis is 6+ inches (15.24+ cm) in length, and (2) based on better conducted studies, to estimate within a small range of values the actual mean length of an erect penis. By including flawed studies, therapists may better address false beliefs by clients based on those studies. The primary sources for the review were Medline and Social Sciences with Full Text (1975 to present), using “penis” as the key search word.
Abstract
Most men believe that the average length of an erect penis is greater than 6 inches (15.24 cm). This belief is due, in part, to several often-cited studies that relied on self-reported measurements, with means of about 6.2 inches (15.75 cm) for heterosexual men and even greater for gay men. These studies suffered from both volunteer bias and social desirability bias. In this review, the combined mean for 10 studies in which researchers took measurements of erect penises was 5.36 inches (13.61 cm; n = 1,629). For 21 studies in which researchers measured stretched penises, the mean was approximately 5.11 inches (12.98 cm; n = 13,719). Based on these studies, the average length of an erect penis is between 5.1 and 5.5 inches (12.95–13.97 cm), but after taking volunteer bias into account, it is probably toward the lower end of this range. Studies show that a majority of men wish they were larger, with some choosing penile lengthening surgery. These surgeries are considered by the American Urological Association to be risky. Most men seeking surgery have normal sized penises. Counseling with factual information about penis size might be effective in alleviating concerns for the majority of men who worry about having a small penis.
Studies find that many men have concerns that their penis is not large enough and that they are smaller relative to other men (Johnston, McLellan, & McKinlay, 2014; Lee, 1996; Lever, Frederick, & Peplau, 2006; Morrison, Bearden, Ellis, & Harriman, 2005; Tiggemann, Martins, & Churchett, 2008). They equate penis size with sexual competence and masculinity (Morrison et al., 2005; Tiggemann et al., 2008; Wylie & Eardley, 2007). As a result, 45–68.3% of men wish they had a larger penis (Lever et al., 2006; Tiggemann et al., 2008). Most men believe that the average erect penis is over 6 inches (15.24 cm) in length, and for many their ideal penis length is considerably longer than that (Johnston et al., 2014).
This paper reviews all known studies of measurements of erect or stretched penis length. The review includes 10 studies that relied on self-reported measurements, 11 studies in which researchers measured erect penises, and 22 studies in which researchers measured stretched penises (see Table 1). Only studies of abnormalities of the penis, or of children, were excluded. The purpose of not excluding other studies is two-fold: (1) to point out the methodological flaws in many studies that contributed to men’s false beliefs that the average-size erect penis is 6+ inches (15.24+ cm) in length, and (2) based on better conducted studies, to estimate within a small range of values the actual mean length of an erect penis. By including flawed studies, therapists may better address false beliefs by clients based on those studies. The primary sources for the review were Medline and Social Sciences with Full Text (1975 to present), using “penis” as the key search word.
Conclusion
With one exception (Herbenick et al., 2014), the studies of erect penis length that relied on self-reported measurements had serious flaws, most notably volunteer bias and social desirability bias. Some of these studies have no doubt contributed to men’s insecurities about penis size and should be dismissed and ignored. In 22 studies, researchers measured stretched penises, thus eliminating social desirability bias, but this technique tends to under-report erect penis size (e.g., Habous et al., 2015; Şengezer et al., 2002). In 11 studies, researchers measured erect penises. However, one used an unconventional technique (Sparling, 1997) and this and another study had obvious volunteer bias (Ansell Research, 2001; Sparling, 1997). Based on the other nine studies, the actual average length of an erect penis is probably between 5.1 and 5.5 inches (12.95 to 13.97 cm).
Recall that among the studies in which researchers measured erect penis length, one of the largest reported means was 5.71 inches (14.5 cm) (da Ros et al., 1994). In that study, only 12% of men had an erect penis longer than 6.3 inches (16.0 cm). In the study in which men self-reported erect penis lengths in order to receive correctly-sized condoms (but there still may have been some over-reporting due to social desirability), only 17% of men had penises that were longer than 6.3 inches (16.0 cm) (Herbenick et al., 2014). Mean erect penis lengths in these two studies were at the high end of the many studies in which measurements could be trusted as accurate. Thus, it is likely that even fewer than 12–17% of men have a penis that measures greater than 6.3 (16.0 cm) inches when erect.
In a previous review of studies of penis size, Veale et al. (2015) cautioned that because many of these studies relied on volunteers there is still the possibility of volunteer bias. That is, men with larger penises might have been more likely to volunteer to be measured than men with smaller penises. If true, the estimated average erect penis length of 5.1 to 5.5 inches (12.95 to 13.97 cm) is likely to be toward the lower end of this range.
For a review of flaccid penis length and circumference, see Veale et al. (2015).
Growth mindset was studied longitudinally from high school through 4 college years; the mindset was not associated with grades at any point, even in students for whom university was especially challenging
Testing the association of growth mindset and grades across a challenging transition: Is growth mindset associated with grades? Yue Li, Timothy C. Bates. Intelligence, Volume 81, July–August 2020, 101471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2020.101471
Highlights
• Reports two near-replications of the relationship of mindset to grades across a challenging transition (n = 832)
• Growth mindset was studied longitudinally from high school through four years of university
• Growth mindset was not associated with grades at any point
• Growth mindset was not associated with grades across the challenging transition from high school to university
• Growth mindset was not associated with grades even in students for whom university was especially challenging
Abstract: Mindset theory predicts that whether students believe basic ability is greatly malleable exerts a major influence on their own educational attainment (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007). We tested this prediction in two near-replication studies (total n = 832). In study 1 we tested the association of mindset with university grades in a cross-sectional design involving self-reported grades for 246 undergraduates. Growth mindset showed no association with grades (β = −0.02 CI95 [−0.16, 0.12], t = −0.26, p = .792). In study 2, we implemented a longitudinal design, testing the association of mindset with grade transcript scores across a series of challenging transitions: from high school to university entry, and then across all years of an undergraduate degree (n = 586). Contrary to prediction, mindset was not associated with grades across the challenging transition from high-school to the first year of university (β = −0.05 CI95 [−0.14, 0.05], t = −0.95, p = .345). In addition, mindset was unrelated to entry grades (p = .808). And no support was found for a predicted interaction of mindset with academic disadvantage across the transition (β = −0.03 CI95 [−0.12, 0.07], t = −0.54, p = .592). Follow-up analyses showed no association of mindset with improvement in grades at any subsequent year of the degree (minimum p-value 0.591). Jointly, these two near-replication studies suggest that, even across challenging transitions, growth mindset is either unrelated to educational attainment or has a very small negative influence.
Keywords: Intelligence-mindsetEducational attainmentGrowth mindsetChallenging transitions
Highlights
• Reports two near-replications of the relationship of mindset to grades across a challenging transition (n = 832)
• Growth mindset was studied longitudinally from high school through four years of university
• Growth mindset was not associated with grades at any point
• Growth mindset was not associated with grades across the challenging transition from high school to university
• Growth mindset was not associated with grades even in students for whom university was especially challenging
Abstract: Mindset theory predicts that whether students believe basic ability is greatly malleable exerts a major influence on their own educational attainment (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007). We tested this prediction in two near-replication studies (total n = 832). In study 1 we tested the association of mindset with university grades in a cross-sectional design involving self-reported grades for 246 undergraduates. Growth mindset showed no association with grades (β = −0.02 CI95 [−0.16, 0.12], t = −0.26, p = .792). In study 2, we implemented a longitudinal design, testing the association of mindset with grade transcript scores across a series of challenging transitions: from high school to university entry, and then across all years of an undergraduate degree (n = 586). Contrary to prediction, mindset was not associated with grades across the challenging transition from high-school to the first year of university (β = −0.05 CI95 [−0.14, 0.05], t = −0.95, p = .345). In addition, mindset was unrelated to entry grades (p = .808). And no support was found for a predicted interaction of mindset with academic disadvantage across the transition (β = −0.03 CI95 [−0.12, 0.07], t = −0.54, p = .592). Follow-up analyses showed no association of mindset with improvement in grades at any subsequent year of the degree (minimum p-value 0.591). Jointly, these two near-replication studies suggest that, even across challenging transitions, growth mindset is either unrelated to educational attainment or has a very small negative influence.
Keywords: Intelligence-mindsetEducational attainmentGrowth mindsetChallenging transitions
Does Growth Mindset Do What It Promises? It doesn't
Does Growth Mindset Work? Marc Effron, Talent Strategy Group, May 2020. https://talentstrategygroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Does-Growth-Mindset-Work.pdf
But there has to be something there!
Many reasonable people will ask, “if growth mindset doesn’t do what it promises, how come when I changed my mindset I was able to overcome obstacles or to succeed where I previously couldn’t?” There are a multitude of reasons that people succeed at something after they first fail or under-perform. The most obvious reason is that they were capable the entire time but didn’t try or didn’t try hard enough. When they either tried, tried again or tried harder, their existing capabilities allowed them to succeed.
Why isn’t that the epitome of growth mindset? First, because Dweck explicitly states that growth mindset is not about effort.32 Second, because you could put a less intelligent person in that same situation, have them apply the same mindset and the same amount of effort and they wouldn’t achieve the same results.
A less intelligent, personality-disadvantaged individual with a growth mindset will not outperform a more intelligent person with a growth mindset. The difference in achievement will be due to fixed characteristics like intelligence and personality, not to someone’s mindset.
People can also succeed at Time B where they didn’t succeed at Time A if they apply any of the scientifically proven methods to improve their performance at work. Those methods include setting goals, changing their behaviors, working harder, influencing better or any of the other scientifically-proven approaches I wrote about in 8 Steps to High Performance.
In that book, I also cautioned that our core personality traits and intelligence are the largest factors in our success and that one’s efforts and mindset will only move someone as far as those fixed characteristics will allow. It would be wonderful if everyone engaged in all of those scientifically proven tactics so they could be as successful as possible. There’s no proof that also having a growth or fixed mindset would make any difference in the outcome.
Why you should avoid the term “growth mindset”
You may believe that there’s no harm in urging people to have a growth mindset. It may not hurt if, when you say that term, you mean that someone should engage in tactics that are proven to make them more successful. But, in that case, why not tell someone specifically that they should try harder or practice more or keep a positive attitude. If you mean that they should have a "growth mindset" (they should believe that intelligence and personality can change and that they will be more successful for that belief), you’re harming individuals who may not be able to succeed and doing nothing for people who would have succeeded anyway.
Let’s separate positive intention from scientific proof
The growth mindset concept captures the best of our humanistic spirit (anyone can improve if they just believe!) and confirms the worst of our scientific ignorance (can’t anyone improve if they just believe?). It purports to solve a problem that may not exist or that may be more effectively addressed by other means if it does exist. In any case, a growth mindset intervention would be sharply constrained by the more powerful influence of intelligence and personality. The science is clear that adopting a growth mindset does not meaningfully increase performance in adults or children. You become a higher performer when you engage in any of the multitude of activities that are proven to make you a high performer. If we want to help more people to succeed, let's focus our efforts there first.
But there has to be something there!
Many reasonable people will ask, “if growth mindset doesn’t do what it promises, how come when I changed my mindset I was able to overcome obstacles or to succeed where I previously couldn’t?” There are a multitude of reasons that people succeed at something after they first fail or under-perform. The most obvious reason is that they were capable the entire time but didn’t try or didn’t try hard enough. When they either tried, tried again or tried harder, their existing capabilities allowed them to succeed.
Why isn’t that the epitome of growth mindset? First, because Dweck explicitly states that growth mindset is not about effort.32 Second, because you could put a less intelligent person in that same situation, have them apply the same mindset and the same amount of effort and they wouldn’t achieve the same results.
A less intelligent, personality-disadvantaged individual with a growth mindset will not outperform a more intelligent person with a growth mindset. The difference in achievement will be due to fixed characteristics like intelligence and personality, not to someone’s mindset.
People can also succeed at Time B where they didn’t succeed at Time A if they apply any of the scientifically proven methods to improve their performance at work. Those methods include setting goals, changing their behaviors, working harder, influencing better or any of the other scientifically-proven approaches I wrote about in 8 Steps to High Performance.
In that book, I also cautioned that our core personality traits and intelligence are the largest factors in our success and that one’s efforts and mindset will only move someone as far as those fixed characteristics will allow. It would be wonderful if everyone engaged in all of those scientifically proven tactics so they could be as successful as possible. There’s no proof that also having a growth or fixed mindset would make any difference in the outcome.
Why you should avoid the term “growth mindset”
You may believe that there’s no harm in urging people to have a growth mindset. It may not hurt if, when you say that term, you mean that someone should engage in tactics that are proven to make them more successful. But, in that case, why not tell someone specifically that they should try harder or practice more or keep a positive attitude. If you mean that they should have a "growth mindset" (they should believe that intelligence and personality can change and that they will be more successful for that belief), you’re harming individuals who may not be able to succeed and doing nothing for people who would have succeeded anyway.
Let’s separate positive intention from scientific proof
The growth mindset concept captures the best of our humanistic spirit (anyone can improve if they just believe!) and confirms the worst of our scientific ignorance (can’t anyone improve if they just believe?). It purports to solve a problem that may not exist or that may be more effectively addressed by other means if it does exist. In any case, a growth mindset intervention would be sharply constrained by the more powerful influence of intelligence and personality. The science is clear that adopting a growth mindset does not meaningfully increase performance in adults or children. You become a higher performer when you engage in any of the multitude of activities that are proven to make you a high performer. If we want to help more people to succeed, let's focus our efforts there first.
The Effects of Personality Traits and Situational Factors on the Deliberativeness and Civility of User Comments on News Websites
The Effects of Personality Traits and Situational Factors on the Deliberativeness and Civility of User Comments on News Websites. Johannes Beckert, Marc Ziegele. International Journal of Communication, Vol 14, Jul 2020. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/13422
Abstract: Comment sections have become an integral part of digital journalism. They enable users to share their viewpoints and discuss news issues with others. From a deliberative perspective, there is controversy regarding the democratic benefits of comment sections. Though previous research analyzed causes and effects of uncivil and low-quality comments, it is not clear what makes users contribute deliberative and civil comments. The present study combines data from an online survey and a content analysis of the comments that the survey participants provided to investigate the relative importance of personality traits and situational states for commenting behavior. The findings show that the quality of user comments is both a matter of personality traits and situational states. Incivility was found to be triggered mainly by sadistic personality traits and specific article topics, whereas deliberative comments result from high levels of agreeableness, cognitive involvement, and from low levels of extraversion and positive affect.
Keywords: user comments, deliberation, incivility, personality, involvement, multimethod
Abstract: Comment sections have become an integral part of digital journalism. They enable users to share their viewpoints and discuss news issues with others. From a deliberative perspective, there is controversy regarding the democratic benefits of comment sections. Though previous research analyzed causes and effects of uncivil and low-quality comments, it is not clear what makes users contribute deliberative and civil comments. The present study combines data from an online survey and a content analysis of the comments that the survey participants provided to investigate the relative importance of personality traits and situational states for commenting behavior. The findings show that the quality of user comments is both a matter of personality traits and situational states. Incivility was found to be triggered mainly by sadistic personality traits and specific article topics, whereas deliberative comments result from high levels of agreeableness, cognitive involvement, and from low levels of extraversion and positive affect.
Keywords: user comments, deliberation, incivility, personality, involvement, multimethod
Wednesday, July 15, 2020
The same information about scientific findings was generally found less credible when presented on Twitter than on other platforms
Boothby, Clara, Dakota Murray, Cassidy R. Sugimoto, Anna P. Waggy, and Andrew Tsou. 2020. “Credibility of Scientific Information on Social Media: Variation by Platform and Presence of Formal Credibility Cues.” SocArXiv. July 6. doi:10.31235/osf.io/4dhcz
Abstract: Responding to calls to take a more active role in communicating their research findings, scientists are increasingly using easily available online platforms, such as Twitter, to engage in science communication or to publicize their research findings. However, in the crowded arena of online platforms, it is increasingly important for scientists to present their findings in a manner that appears credible, especially considering the heightened opportunity for the misunderstandings surrounding scientific topics, such as climate change. To examine the extent to which the online presentation of science information relates to its perceived credibility, we designed and conducted two surveys on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. In the first survey, participants rated the credibility of science information on Twitter compared with the same information other platforms, and in the second, participants rated the credibility of tweets with modified characteristics: presence of an image, text sentiment, number of likes/retweets. We found that that the same information about scientific findings was generally found less credible when presented on Twitter than on other platforms. However, there is evidence that even within Twitter, the inclusion of recognizable features of Scientific work, such as figures, the paper abstract, and the use of the paper title, may be related to increased credibility on Twitter. A clear understanding of features that contribute to and detract from credibility on a platform as widely distrusted as Twitter may allow researchers who regularly use Twitter for research-related networking and communication to present their findings in the most credible formats.
Abstract: Responding to calls to take a more active role in communicating their research findings, scientists are increasingly using easily available online platforms, such as Twitter, to engage in science communication or to publicize their research findings. However, in the crowded arena of online platforms, it is increasingly important for scientists to present their findings in a manner that appears credible, especially considering the heightened opportunity for the misunderstandings surrounding scientific topics, such as climate change. To examine the extent to which the online presentation of science information relates to its perceived credibility, we designed and conducted two surveys on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. In the first survey, participants rated the credibility of science information on Twitter compared with the same information other platforms, and in the second, participants rated the credibility of tweets with modified characteristics: presence of an image, text sentiment, number of likes/retweets. We found that that the same information about scientific findings was generally found less credible when presented on Twitter than on other platforms. However, there is evidence that even within Twitter, the inclusion of recognizable features of Scientific work, such as figures, the paper abstract, and the use of the paper title, may be related to increased credibility on Twitter. A clear understanding of features that contribute to and detract from credibility on a platform as widely distrusted as Twitter may allow researchers who regularly use Twitter for research-related networking and communication to present their findings in the most credible formats.
For women, using pornography was associated with their own & their partner’s higher sexual desire & with higher odds of partnered sexual activity; for men coupled with women, with lower odds of partnered sexual activity
Pornography use and romantic relationships: A dyadic daily diary study. Marie-Pier Vaillancourt-Morel et al. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, July 15, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407520940048
Abstract: Pornography use is now considered a normative sexual activity, including for partnered individuals. Although there are documented positive and negative effects of pornography use on romantic relationships, studies to date suffer from key limitations, narrowing their clinical relevance. Most rely on vague recall measurement that may inadequately capture actual pornography use, and all are exclusively based on mixed-sex couples. This study used a 35-day dyadic daily diary design to examine the associations between an individual’s daily pornography use and their own and their partner’s relationship satisfaction, partnered sexual desire, and probability of partnered sexual activity in mixed-sex and same-sex couples (N = 217 couples). For women, regardless of partner’s sex, using pornography was associated with their own and their partner’s higher sexual desire and with higher odds of partnered sexual activity. For men, regardless of partner’s sex, using pornography was associated with their partner’s lower sexual desire; for men coupled with women, with lower odds of partnered sexual activity, and for men coupled with men, with higher odds of partnered sexual activity. For all participants, pornography use was unrelated to relationship satisfaction. The current study demonstrated that an individual’s pornography use is associated with same-day couple’s sexual dynamics, with different associations according to users’ and their partners’ sex.
Keywords: Dyadic daily diary, pornography use, relationship satisfaction, romantic relationships, sexuality
Abstract: Pornography use is now considered a normative sexual activity, including for partnered individuals. Although there are documented positive and negative effects of pornography use on romantic relationships, studies to date suffer from key limitations, narrowing their clinical relevance. Most rely on vague recall measurement that may inadequately capture actual pornography use, and all are exclusively based on mixed-sex couples. This study used a 35-day dyadic daily diary design to examine the associations between an individual’s daily pornography use and their own and their partner’s relationship satisfaction, partnered sexual desire, and probability of partnered sexual activity in mixed-sex and same-sex couples (N = 217 couples). For women, regardless of partner’s sex, using pornography was associated with their own and their partner’s higher sexual desire and with higher odds of partnered sexual activity. For men, regardless of partner’s sex, using pornography was associated with their partner’s lower sexual desire; for men coupled with women, with lower odds of partnered sexual activity, and for men coupled with men, with higher odds of partnered sexual activity. For all participants, pornography use was unrelated to relationship satisfaction. The current study demonstrated that an individual’s pornography use is associated with same-day couple’s sexual dynamics, with different associations according to users’ and their partners’ sex.
Keywords: Dyadic daily diary, pornography use, relationship satisfaction, romantic relationships, sexuality
Role of internal variability in the temperature we expect to observe: We show that even out to 30 years large parts of the globe (or most of the globe in MPI-GE & CMIP5) could still experience no-warming due to internal variability
Quantifying the role of internal variability in the temperature we expect to observe in the coming decades. Nicola Maher, Flavio Lehner and Jochem Marotzke. Environmental Research Letters, Volume 15, Number 5, May 12 2020. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab7d02/meta
Abstract: On short (15-year) to mid-term (30-year) time-scales how the Earth's surface temperature evolves can be dominated by internal variability as demonstrated by the global-warming pause or 'hiatus'. In this study, we use six single model initial-condition large ensembles (SMILEs) and the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 (CMIP5) to visualise the role of internal variability in controlling possible observable surface temperature trends in the short-term and mid-term projections from 2019 onwards. We confirm that in the short-term, surface temperature trend projections are dominated by internal variability, with little influence of structural model differences or warming pathway. Additionally we demonstrate that this result is independent of the model-dependent estimate of the magnitude of internal variability. Indeed, and perhaps counter intuitively, in all models a lack of warming, or even a cooling trend could be observed at all individual points on the globe, even under the largest greenhouse gas emissions. The near-equivalence of all six SMILEs and CMIP5 demonstrates the robustness of this result to the choice of models used. On the mid-term time-scale, we confirm that structural model differences and scenario uncertainties play a larger role in controlling surface temperature trend projections than they did on the shorter time-scale. In addition we show that whether internal variability still dominates, or whether model uncertainties and internal variability are a similar magnitude, depends on the estimate of internal variability, which differs between the SMILEs. Finally we show that even out to thirty years large parts of the globe (or most of the globe in MPI-GE and CMIP5) could still experience no-warming due to internal variability.
5. Summary and conclusions
This study is the first to investigate point-wise projected temperature trends across the entire globe in both multiple (six) SMILEs and CMIP5. Hawkins and Sutton (2009) originally demonstrated the changing role of internal variability, model differences and scenario uncertainty on different time-scales. However, they were unable to account for the fact that internal variability in all models is not the same and that this variability itself may change in the future (e.g. Sutton et al 2015,Maher et al 2019, Deser et al 2020). Here, we confirm the results of Hawkins and Sutton (2009) with a more recent generation of climate models and at a higher spatial resolution, using multiple SMILEs and CMIP5 in agreement with Lehner et al (in review 2020). We build on these results, by demonstrating their remarkable robustness and additionally investigating uncertainties due to the differences in internal variability between different models.
We first confirm that on short-term time-scales (15-years) temperature trends are dominated by internal variability. This result is shown to be remarkably robust. There is near-equivalence between the six individual SMILEs and CMIP5, demonstrating that the SMILE results hold when using all available climate models. We find that internal variability dominates projections even when we take the smallest estimate of internal variability available from the SMILEs.
Second we confirm that on mid-term time-scales (30-years) internal variability is still important for driving temperature trends, however in this case both structural model differences and scenario (or pathway) uncertainty also matter, with model differences having the greater importance of the two. Due to the availability of multiple SMILEs we additionally show that the relative importance of internal variability and model differences is dependent on the models representation of internal variability. Model uncertainty is found to be the main driver of mid-term trends when we take a low estimate of internal variability, while with a high estimate, internal variability instead dominates. This result highlights the importance of using multiple SMILEs, with a range of estimates of internal variability in future studies investigating mid-term time-scales and underscores the importance of evaluating not just a model's mean state or forced trend, but also its internal variability.
Due to the difficulty in communicating what internal variability is and its importance in driving the climate that we observe, we have created maps to visualise both the maximum and minimum global and point-wise future trends that could occur on both the short and mid-term time-scales. These maps clearly demonstrate the cooling that could occur under increasing greenhouse gases, caused by internal variability. In the short-term all points on the globe could individually experience cooling or no warming, although in a probabilistic sense they are much more likely to warm. While every grid point can still cool in the future, Sippel et al (2020) have recently demonstrated that climate change is still detectable in the pattern of global temperature anomalies at any given day. We find that even on the mid-term time-scale a large proportion of the globe could by chance still not experience a warming trend due to internal variability, although this result is somewhat model dependent. These maps provide an easy way to visualise the importance of internal variability on both short and mid-term time-scales, and can be used as a tool for understanding what we observe as we observe it over the coming decades.
Abstract: On short (15-year) to mid-term (30-year) time-scales how the Earth's surface temperature evolves can be dominated by internal variability as demonstrated by the global-warming pause or 'hiatus'. In this study, we use six single model initial-condition large ensembles (SMILEs) and the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 (CMIP5) to visualise the role of internal variability in controlling possible observable surface temperature trends in the short-term and mid-term projections from 2019 onwards. We confirm that in the short-term, surface temperature trend projections are dominated by internal variability, with little influence of structural model differences or warming pathway. Additionally we demonstrate that this result is independent of the model-dependent estimate of the magnitude of internal variability. Indeed, and perhaps counter intuitively, in all models a lack of warming, or even a cooling trend could be observed at all individual points on the globe, even under the largest greenhouse gas emissions. The near-equivalence of all six SMILEs and CMIP5 demonstrates the robustness of this result to the choice of models used. On the mid-term time-scale, we confirm that structural model differences and scenario uncertainties play a larger role in controlling surface temperature trend projections than they did on the shorter time-scale. In addition we show that whether internal variability still dominates, or whether model uncertainties and internal variability are a similar magnitude, depends on the estimate of internal variability, which differs between the SMILEs. Finally we show that even out to thirty years large parts of the globe (or most of the globe in MPI-GE and CMIP5) could still experience no-warming due to internal variability.
5. Summary and conclusions
This study is the first to investigate point-wise projected temperature trends across the entire globe in both multiple (six) SMILEs and CMIP5. Hawkins and Sutton (2009) originally demonstrated the changing role of internal variability, model differences and scenario uncertainty on different time-scales. However, they were unable to account for the fact that internal variability in all models is not the same and that this variability itself may change in the future (e.g. Sutton et al 2015,Maher et al 2019, Deser et al 2020). Here, we confirm the results of Hawkins and Sutton (2009) with a more recent generation of climate models and at a higher spatial resolution, using multiple SMILEs and CMIP5 in agreement with Lehner et al (in review 2020). We build on these results, by demonstrating their remarkable robustness and additionally investigating uncertainties due to the differences in internal variability between different models.
We first confirm that on short-term time-scales (15-years) temperature trends are dominated by internal variability. This result is shown to be remarkably robust. There is near-equivalence between the six individual SMILEs and CMIP5, demonstrating that the SMILE results hold when using all available climate models. We find that internal variability dominates projections even when we take the smallest estimate of internal variability available from the SMILEs.
Second we confirm that on mid-term time-scales (30-years) internal variability is still important for driving temperature trends, however in this case both structural model differences and scenario (or pathway) uncertainty also matter, with model differences having the greater importance of the two. Due to the availability of multiple SMILEs we additionally show that the relative importance of internal variability and model differences is dependent on the models representation of internal variability. Model uncertainty is found to be the main driver of mid-term trends when we take a low estimate of internal variability, while with a high estimate, internal variability instead dominates. This result highlights the importance of using multiple SMILEs, with a range of estimates of internal variability in future studies investigating mid-term time-scales and underscores the importance of evaluating not just a model's mean state or forced trend, but also its internal variability.
Due to the difficulty in communicating what internal variability is and its importance in driving the climate that we observe, we have created maps to visualise both the maximum and minimum global and point-wise future trends that could occur on both the short and mid-term time-scales. These maps clearly demonstrate the cooling that could occur under increasing greenhouse gases, caused by internal variability. In the short-term all points on the globe could individually experience cooling or no warming, although in a probabilistic sense they are much more likely to warm. While every grid point can still cool in the future, Sippel et al (2020) have recently demonstrated that climate change is still detectable in the pattern of global temperature anomalies at any given day. We find that even on the mid-term time-scale a large proportion of the globe could by chance still not experience a warming trend due to internal variability, although this result is somewhat model dependent. These maps provide an easy way to visualise the importance of internal variability on both short and mid-term time-scales, and can be used as a tool for understanding what we observe as we observe it over the coming decades.
Although most of the literature on shared experiences and social bonds concern humans, we cannot exclude the presence of similar mechanisms in non-human vertebrates
The dawn of social bonds: what is the role of shared experiences in non-human animals? Laura Busia and Matteo Griggio. Biology Letters, Vol 16, issue 7, July 15 2020. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2020.0201
Abstract: Group-living animals can develop social bonds. Social bonds can be considered a type of social relationship characterized by frequent and consistent affiliative (non-reproductive) interactions. Social bonds with conspecifics bring many advantages, also in terms of direct fitness. A characteristic of social bonds is that they need time to develop. Several studies on humans have emphasized the fact that sharing experiences can affect the strength of social bonds. A similar trend can be spotted in non-human species. For example, a recent experiment showed that if chimpanzees watched a video together with a conspecific, they spent more time in proximity compared to conspecifics with whom they did not actively watch a video. Another experiment on fish showed that individuals who experienced a situation of high predation risk together, showed preference for each other compared to those who did not. As the link between shared experiences and social bonds is not explicitly recognized in non-human animals, the main goal of this work is to propose the exploration of this novel research path. This exploration would contribute to shed light on the evolutionary mechanisms of social bond (or friendship) development and maintenance between individuals in different vertebrate species, from fish to non-human primates.
Abstract: Group-living animals can develop social bonds. Social bonds can be considered a type of social relationship characterized by frequent and consistent affiliative (non-reproductive) interactions. Social bonds with conspecifics bring many advantages, also in terms of direct fitness. A characteristic of social bonds is that they need time to develop. Several studies on humans have emphasized the fact that sharing experiences can affect the strength of social bonds. A similar trend can be spotted in non-human species. For example, a recent experiment showed that if chimpanzees watched a video together with a conspecific, they spent more time in proximity compared to conspecifics with whom they did not actively watch a video. Another experiment on fish showed that individuals who experienced a situation of high predation risk together, showed preference for each other compared to those who did not. As the link between shared experiences and social bonds is not explicitly recognized in non-human animals, the main goal of this work is to propose the exploration of this novel research path. This exploration would contribute to shed light on the evolutionary mechanisms of social bond (or friendship) development and maintenance between individuals in different vertebrate species, from fish to non-human primates.
5. Conclusion
Although most of the literature on shared experiences and social bonds concern humans, we cannot exclude the presence of similar mechanisms in non-human species. Indeed, recent studies on guppies [20] and chimpanzees [59] found clear results with potentially encouraging interpretations. We think this may be a promising research path to follow with non-human animals as study subjects. Indeed, it may contribute to understand whether the psychological mechanisms behind human social behaviour are also subtly present in other organisms. A better understanding of how social bonds develop can give insight into both social cognition and on the ecological and social contexts under which sociality is promoted in different vertebrate species.
In a Representative Sample Grit Has a Negligible Effect on Educational and Economic Success Compared to Intelligence
In a Representative Sample Grit Has a Negligible Effect on Educational and Economic Success Compared to Intelligence. Chen Zissman, Yoav Ganzach. Social Psychological and Personality Science, July 14, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620920531
Abstract: We compare the relative contribution of grit and intelligence to educational and job-market success in a representative sample of the American population. We find that, in terms of ΔR 2, intelligence contributes 48–90 times more than grit to educational success and 13 times more to job-market success. Conscientiousness also contributes to success more than grit but only twice as much. We show that the reason our results differ from those of previous studies which showed that grit has a stronger effect on success is that these previous studies used nonrepresentative samples that were range restricted on intelligence. Our findings suggest that although grit has some effect on success, it is negligible compared to intelligence and perhaps also to other traditional predictors of success.
Keywords: intelligence, achievement, grit, educational success
Abstract: We compare the relative contribution of grit and intelligence to educational and job-market success in a representative sample of the American population. We find that, in terms of ΔR 2, intelligence contributes 48–90 times more than grit to educational success and 13 times more to job-market success. Conscientiousness also contributes to success more than grit but only twice as much. We show that the reason our results differ from those of previous studies which showed that grit has a stronger effect on success is that these previous studies used nonrepresentative samples that were range restricted on intelligence. Our findings suggest that although grit has some effect on success, it is negligible compared to intelligence and perhaps also to other traditional predictors of success.
Keywords: intelligence, achievement, grit, educational success
Tuesday, July 14, 2020
Quality of Research on Mental Health Effects of COVID-19: Low compliance with open science recommendations, which raise concerns about the validity, generalisability, and reproducibility of the findings
Nieto, Ines, Juan F Navas, and Carmelo Vazquez. 2020. “The Quality of Research on Mental Health Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Note of Caution After a Systematic Review.” PsyArXiv. July 14. doi:10.31234/osf.io/ndgkj
Abstract
Background: SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has spurred scientific production in diverse fields of knowledge, including mental health. Yet, the quality of current research may be challenged by the urgent need to provide immediate results to understand and alleviate the consequences of the pandemic. This systematic review aims to examine compliance with basic methodological quality criteria and open science practices on the mental health effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods: A systematic search was performed using PubMed and Scopus databases on the 13th of May. Empirical studies, published in peer-reviewed journals in English, between February and May 2020, were included. The dependent variable(s) required to be quantitative and related to mental health. Exclusion criteria included clinical pharmacological trials, and studies using psychophysiological or biological recordings. The study protocol was previously pre-registered in https://osf.io/bk3gw/.
Findings: Twenty-eight studies were identified. More than 75% met the requirements related to reporting key methodological and statistical information. However, 89.3% used convenience samples and 92.86% lacked of a priori power analysis. There was low compliance with open science recommendations, such as pre-registration of studies (0%) and availability of databases (3.57%), which raise concerns about the validity, generalisability, and reproducibility of the findings.
Interpretation: While the importance of offering rapid evidence-based responses to mitigate mental health problems stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic is undeniable, it should not be done at the expense of sacrificing scientific rigor. The results of this study may stimulate researchers and funding agencies to try to orchestrate efforts and resources and follow standard codes of good science.
Abstract
Background: SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has spurred scientific production in diverse fields of knowledge, including mental health. Yet, the quality of current research may be challenged by the urgent need to provide immediate results to understand and alleviate the consequences of the pandemic. This systematic review aims to examine compliance with basic methodological quality criteria and open science practices on the mental health effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods: A systematic search was performed using PubMed and Scopus databases on the 13th of May. Empirical studies, published in peer-reviewed journals in English, between February and May 2020, were included. The dependent variable(s) required to be quantitative and related to mental health. Exclusion criteria included clinical pharmacological trials, and studies using psychophysiological or biological recordings. The study protocol was previously pre-registered in https://osf.io/bk3gw/.
Findings: Twenty-eight studies were identified. More than 75% met the requirements related to reporting key methodological and statistical information. However, 89.3% used convenience samples and 92.86% lacked of a priori power analysis. There was low compliance with open science recommendations, such as pre-registration of studies (0%) and availability of databases (3.57%), which raise concerns about the validity, generalisability, and reproducibility of the findings.
Interpretation: While the importance of offering rapid evidence-based responses to mitigate mental health problems stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic is undeniable, it should not be done at the expense of sacrificing scientific rigor. The results of this study may stimulate researchers and funding agencies to try to orchestrate efforts and resources and follow standard codes of good science.
Long-term low-dose ethanol intake improves healthspan and resists high-fat diet-induced obesity in mice
Long-term low-dose ethanol intake improves healthspan and resists high-fat diet-induced obesity in mice. Yan Diao et al. Aging, July 8, 2020. https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.103401
Abstract: Numerous epidemiological studies have reported that moderate alcohol drinking has beneficial effects. However, few studies have focused on the beneficial effects of ethanol, the common component in alcoholic beverages. Here we fed the C57BL/6 mice with 3.5% v/v ethanol as drinking water substitute to investigate the effects of long-term low-dose ethanol intake in vivo. We evaluated the metabolic rate and mitochondrial function of the long-term low-dose ethanol-intake (LLE) mice, assessed the exercise ability of LLE mice, and fed the LLE mice with a high-fat diet to investigate the potential impact of ethanol on it. The LLE mice showed improved thermogenic activity, physical performance, and mitochondrial function, as well as resistance against the high-fat diet-induced obesity with elevated insulin sensitivity and subdued inflammation. Our results suggest that long-term low-dose ethanol intake can improve healthspan and resist high-fat diet-induced obesity in mice. It may provide new insight into understanding the protective effects of moderate alcohol drinking.
Discussion
Abstract: Numerous epidemiological studies have reported that moderate alcohol drinking has beneficial effects. However, few studies have focused on the beneficial effects of ethanol, the common component in alcoholic beverages. Here we fed the C57BL/6 mice with 3.5% v/v ethanol as drinking water substitute to investigate the effects of long-term low-dose ethanol intake in vivo. We evaluated the metabolic rate and mitochondrial function of the long-term low-dose ethanol-intake (LLE) mice, assessed the exercise ability of LLE mice, and fed the LLE mice with a high-fat diet to investigate the potential impact of ethanol on it. The LLE mice showed improved thermogenic activity, physical performance, and mitochondrial function, as well as resistance against the high-fat diet-induced obesity with elevated insulin sensitivity and subdued inflammation. Our results suggest that long-term low-dose ethanol intake can improve healthspan and resist high-fat diet-induced obesity in mice. It may provide new insight into understanding the protective effects of moderate alcohol drinking.
Discussion
Previous studies on the protection of alcoholic beverages have been primarily focused on the polyphenols such as resveratrol, procyanidins and other substances like catechin and tannin [29–31]. Ironically, the most important common component of all alcoholic beverages, alcohol or ethanol, has received much less attention. Humans have had a long history of ethanol intake. The ‘drunken monkey hypothesis’ proposes that natural selection favored those primates with an attraction to ethanol because it was associated with proximate benefits [32, 33]. Even in modern times, scientists still observed the proactive behavior of wild chimpanzees taking ethanol [34]. In this study, we use ethanol, the common substance in all kinds of alcoholic beverages, as a single variable to explore its effects in vivo. Our data showed that the long-term 3.5% ethanol substitution for drinking water had beneficial effects in mice, the daily performance of ethanol-fed mice was enhanced, the athletic ability and healthspan of ethanol-fed mice drastically improved. Furthermore, the ethanol-fed mice showed the resistance to high-fat diet. When supplemented with 3.5% ethanol, the HFD mice showed reduced multiple organ pathogenicity, increased insulin sensitivity, and decreased NF-kB activation and inflammatory cytokines. These changes caused by ethanol are astonishing and impressive.
It has been well accepted that acute and chronic excessive alcohol exposure is conducive to tissue injury and that alcohol abuse is usually accompanied by a series of organ damages, including liver cirrhosis, cardiovascular disease, and cognition disorder, etc. [35–37]. However, one should be mindful that the injuries caused by the excessive use of alcohol are dose-dependent. In our study, the long term 3.5% ethanol-fed mice did not show the common negative effects of alcohol. At this dose, we did not observe any pathological structural changes in the liver, the heart, or the kidneys; neither did we detect any impairments of learning, memory, and cognition by the water maze. Previous epidemiology studies showed that moderate drinkers those who consumed less than 15.0 g of alcohol per day had better mean cognitive scores than nondrinkers in women [6]. On the other hand, a recent study also claimed that even moderate drinkers (14-21 units/week) had three times the odds of right-sided hippocampal atrophy and has no protective effect for light drinking (1-<7 units/week) [38]. However, the effects of moderate alcohol consumption on brain structure and cognition function need to be further explored.
One of the pathophysiological mechanisms induced by alcohol abuse has been identified as mitochondria dysfunction [39]. When the mitochondrial DNA damages induced by alcohol abuse are not adequately repaired, the mitochondrial function is impaired [40]. On the other hand, the mitochondrial volume was associated with high levels of physical activity [41]. The improved mitochondrial function of LLE mice may be due to their high level of daily physical activity and enhancement of athletic ability of LLE mice. In our experiments, we observed that the mitochondrial density in the liver and the skeletal muscles of the ethanol-fed group increased, and the morphology became stronger with more cristae, indicating improved mitochondrial function under the moderate ethanol feeding. AMPK induces mitochondrial biogenesis and has emerging roles in the regulation of both mitochondrial metabolism and dynamics [21, 22]. Phosphorylation activity of AMPK, necessary for mitochondrial biogenesis via SIRT1 and PGC1a [23, 24], was increased in the liver of the LLE mice. Considering the activation of AMPK by moderate ethanol intake, it seems reasonable to entertain the hypothesis that the rapid acetate metabolism following the ingestion of ethanol generates sufficient AMP to transiently activate AMPK, which in turn induces the synthesis of certain long-lived proteins that act to boost insulin sensitivity and possibly aid the efficiency of fat oxidation as well [42]. Furthermore, skeletal muscle contraction and exercise can stimulate the expression of AMPK [43, 44]. In our previous study, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors PPARα and PPARγ were found to be increased in the moderate alcohol-fed mice [17]. Both receptors are positively involved in mitochondrial biogenesis by promoting the transcription of upstream genes such as NRF-1, NRF-2, and Tfam [45, 46].
Obesity is commonly associated with insulin resistance, chronic systemic inflammation, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease [10]. The current consensus is that moderate alcohol consumption is associated with reduced risks of cardiovascular events, and can decrease the risks of type 2 diabetes [9, 12, 14, 15, 47, 48], partly owing to some of non-alcoholic components in the beverages. For instance, resveratrol in red wine has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties, and can improve glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity [49, 50]. However, the role of ethanol in the beneficial effects of moderate drinking is inadequately studied in comparison. As shown in our data, when supplemented with ethanol, HFD mice exhibited increased insulin sensitivity, lower level of inflammation, and decreased organ pathology, similar to the effects of resveratrol on HFD mice. These findings may explain why the beneficial effects of moderate alcohol drinking are not limited to red wine but also include most alcoholic beverages.
The health effects of alcohol intake are highly dependent on the amount of consumption, in addition to factors such as species (e.g., the alcohol metabolism rate of mice is faster than humans), gender, age, genotype (e.g., ALDH2 mutation), physical state [51]. A J-shaped dose-dependent relationship between alcohol consumption and effects has been proposed for human recently [52, 53]. In another study, Wood AM et al. analyzed 599912 current drinkers and recorded a positive and curvilinear association of all-cause mortality with the level of alcohol consumption, with the minimum mortality risk around 100 g per week [54]. For the aggregate of cardiovascular disease outcomes, a J-shaped association with the level of alcohol consumption was observed in the same study, with 100 g per week being the most beneficial dose [54]. By contrast, another study used 694 data sources of individual and population-level alcohol consumption, along with 592 prospective and retrospective studies on the risk of alcohol use, found that the risk of all-cause mortality, and of cancers specifically, rises with increasing levels of consumption, and asserted the level of consumption that minimizes health loss is zero [55]. The view on the beneficial effects of moderate drinking is inconclusive from these discussions. Furthermore, “moderate drinking” should be more clearly defined, and the long-term effects further explored with more rigorousness and scrutiny.
In conclusion, our findings showed that not only could long-term low-dose ethanol intake improve the physical performance and the healthspan in mice but also boost the defense mechanism against the high-fat diet. Extended evaluations are needed to assess the long-term impacts of moderate alcohol intake on organs or systems such as the brain, the muscular, and the cardiovascular system. Findings from the current study substantiate opinions on the protective effects of moderate alcohol intake.
Magnificent Sex: Lessons from Extraordinary Lovers
Kleinplatz, P. J., & Ménard, A. D. (2020). Magnificent Sex: Lessons from Extraordinary Lovers. Routledge, 2020. https://www.amazon.com/Magnificent-Sex-Lessons-Extraordinary-Lovers/dp/0367181371
The seller's summary:
What makes sex magnificent? What are the qualities of extraordinary erotic intimacy and what are the elements that help to bring it about? Is great sex the stuff that people remember nostalgically from the "honeymoon" phase of their relationships, or can sex improve over time?
Magnificent Sex is based on the largest, in-depth interview study ever conducted with people who are having extraordinary sex. It gathers the nuggets for remarkable sex from the "experts", distilling them into an attainable blueprint for ordinary lovers who want to make erotic intimacy grow over the course of a lifetime. Looking at factors including individual and relational qualities, empathic communication and the myths and realities of magnificent sex, this book offers accessible and evidence-based guidance for lovers and therapists alike.
It is replete with frank and often humorous interviews with straight and LGBTQ individuals and couples, those who are "vanilla" and "kinky", monogamous and consensually non-monogamous and healthy and chronically ill. This illuminating book explores the implications of the findings to develop a model that effectively tackles the common problems of low desire and frequency. The "cure" for low desire is to create desirable sex!
Popular press:
The Erotic Brain SEX Sexual FOMO: The Sex We Think Others Are Having. Petra Zebroff. Psychology Today, Jul 23 2020. https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-erotic-brain/202007/sexual-fomo-the-sex-we-think-others-are-having
The seller's summary:
What makes sex magnificent? What are the qualities of extraordinary erotic intimacy and what are the elements that help to bring it about? Is great sex the stuff that people remember nostalgically from the "honeymoon" phase of their relationships, or can sex improve over time?
Magnificent Sex is based on the largest, in-depth interview study ever conducted with people who are having extraordinary sex. It gathers the nuggets for remarkable sex from the "experts", distilling them into an attainable blueprint for ordinary lovers who want to make erotic intimacy grow over the course of a lifetime. Looking at factors including individual and relational qualities, empathic communication and the myths and realities of magnificent sex, this book offers accessible and evidence-based guidance for lovers and therapists alike.
It is replete with frank and often humorous interviews with straight and LGBTQ individuals and couples, those who are "vanilla" and "kinky", monogamous and consensually non-monogamous and healthy and chronically ill. This illuminating book explores the implications of the findings to develop a model that effectively tackles the common problems of low desire and frequency. The "cure" for low desire is to create desirable sex!
Popular press:
The Erotic Brain SEX Sexual FOMO: The Sex We Think Others Are Having. Petra Zebroff. Psychology Today, Jul 23 2020. https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-erotic-brain/202007/sexual-fomo-the-sex-we-think-others-are-having
Denial of Gender Discrimination is Associated with Better Subjective Well‐Being among Women; these authors think that denial is just a coping mechanism & that it may perpetuate gender inequality
Denial of Gender Discrimination is Associated with Better Subjective Well‐Being among Women: A System Justification Account. Jaime L. Napier Alexandra Suppes Maria Laura Bettinsoli. European Journal of Social Psychology, July 13 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2702
Abstract: Despite the fact that women face socially and politically‐sanctioned disadvantages every day, a large percentage of women and men report that gender discrimination is no longer a problem. Across three studies, which together include over 20,000 participants from 23 countries, we test the hypothesis that denial (vs. acknowledgement) of gender discrimination is associated with higher subjective well‐being among women (Studies 1‐3), and this is because denying gender discrimination promotes the view that the system is fair (Study 1). We further show that this happens above and beyond personal experiences with sexism (Study 1) and that the association is stronger in countries where sexism is relatively high (vs. low; Study 3). We argue that denial of discrimination is an individual‐level coping mechanism and that, like other self‐group distancing strategies, it may perpetuate gender inequality.
Abstract: Despite the fact that women face socially and politically‐sanctioned disadvantages every day, a large percentage of women and men report that gender discrimination is no longer a problem. Across three studies, which together include over 20,000 participants from 23 countries, we test the hypothesis that denial (vs. acknowledgement) of gender discrimination is associated with higher subjective well‐being among women (Studies 1‐3), and this is because denying gender discrimination promotes the view that the system is fair (Study 1). We further show that this happens above and beyond personal experiences with sexism (Study 1) and that the association is stronger in countries where sexism is relatively high (vs. low; Study 3). We argue that denial of discrimination is an individual‐level coping mechanism and that, like other self‐group distancing strategies, it may perpetuate gender inequality.
Monday, July 13, 2020
Labor Market Outcomes for Post Great Recession Entrants: There was a dramatic negative structural break in college graduates’ employment rates, beginning around the 2005 entry cohort, that shows no sign of abating
The Lost Generation? Labor Market Outcomes for Post Great Recession Entrants. Jesse Rothstein. NBER Working Paper No. 27516, July 2020. https://www.nber.org/papers/w27516
Abstract: I study cohort patterns in the labor market outcomes of recent college graduates, examining changes surrounding the Great Recession. Recession entrants have lower wages and employment than those of earlier cohorts; more recent cohorts’ employment is even lower, but the newest entrants’ wages have risen. I relate these changes to "scarring" effects of initial conditions. I demonstrate that adverse early conditions permanently reduce new entrants’ employment probabilities. I also replicate earlier results of medium-term scarring effects on wages that fade out by the early 30s. But scarring cannot account for the employment collapse for recent cohorts. There was a dramatic negative structural break in college graduates’ employment rates, beginning around the 2005 entry cohort, that shows no sign of abating.
Abstract: I study cohort patterns in the labor market outcomes of recent college graduates, examining changes surrounding the Great Recession. Recession entrants have lower wages and employment than those of earlier cohorts; more recent cohorts’ employment is even lower, but the newest entrants’ wages have risen. I relate these changes to "scarring" effects of initial conditions. I demonstrate that adverse early conditions permanently reduce new entrants’ employment probabilities. I also replicate earlier results of medium-term scarring effects on wages that fade out by the early 30s. But scarring cannot account for the employment collapse for recent cohorts. There was a dramatic negative structural break in college graduates’ employment rates, beginning around the 2005 entry cohort, that shows no sign of abating.
Rally held in Tulsa, OK, attracted 6,000 to 12,000 individuals to an indoor arena; this study, the first to explore the impact of this event on the spread of COVID-19, finds no net effect
Did President Trump's Tulsa Rally Reignite COVID-19? Indoor Events and Offsetting Community Effects. Dhaval M. Dave, Andrew I. Friedson, Kyutaro Matsuzawa, Drew McNichols, Connor Redpath, Joseph J. Sabia. NBER Working Paper No. 27522, July 2020. https://www.nber.org/papers/w27522
Abstract: On June 20, 2020, President Donald J. Trump held his first mass campaign rally following the outbreak of COVID-19. Held in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the political gathering attracted 6,000 to 12,000 individuals to the indoor Bank of Oklahoma (BOK) arena. This study is the first to explore the impact of this event on the spread of COVID-19. First, using data from Safegraph Inc, we show that while non-resident visits to census block groups hosting the Trump event grew by approximately 25 percent, there was no decline in net stay-at-home behavior in Tulsa county, reflecting important offsetting behavioral effects. Then, using data on coronavirus cases from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and a synthetic control design, we find little evidence that COVID-19 case growth grew more rapidly in Tulsa County, its border counties, or in the state of Oklahoma than each’s estimated counterfactual in the three weeks following the campaign rally. Difference-in-differences estimates further provide no evidence that COVID-19 case rates grew faster in counties that drew relatively larger shares of residents to the event. We conclude that offsetting behavioral responses to the rally — including voluntary closures of restaurants and bars in downtown Tulsa, increases in stay-at-home behavior, displacement of usual activities of weekend inflows, and smaller-than-expected crowd attendance — may be important mechanisms.
Abstract: On June 20, 2020, President Donald J. Trump held his first mass campaign rally following the outbreak of COVID-19. Held in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the political gathering attracted 6,000 to 12,000 individuals to the indoor Bank of Oklahoma (BOK) arena. This study is the first to explore the impact of this event on the spread of COVID-19. First, using data from Safegraph Inc, we show that while non-resident visits to census block groups hosting the Trump event grew by approximately 25 percent, there was no decline in net stay-at-home behavior in Tulsa county, reflecting important offsetting behavioral effects. Then, using data on coronavirus cases from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and a synthetic control design, we find little evidence that COVID-19 case growth grew more rapidly in Tulsa County, its border counties, or in the state of Oklahoma than each’s estimated counterfactual in the three weeks following the campaign rally. Difference-in-differences estimates further provide no evidence that COVID-19 case rates grew faster in counties that drew relatively larger shares of residents to the event. We conclude that offsetting behavioral responses to the rally — including voluntary closures of restaurants and bars in downtown Tulsa, increases in stay-at-home behavior, displacement of usual activities of weekend inflows, and smaller-than-expected crowd attendance — may be important mechanisms.
Higher levels of internet gaming disorder exist in males & higher levels of social media addiction exist in females; the effect sizes were larger in Europe and the Americas than in Asia
Do men become addicted to internet gaming and women to social media? A meta-analysis examining gender-related differences in specific internet addiction. Wenliang Su et al. Computers in Human Behavior, July 13 2020, 106480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106480
Highlights
• Gender differences exist globally in specific internet use behaviors/disorders.
• Higher levels of internet gaming disorder (IGD) exist in males.
• Higher levels of social media addiction (SMA) exist in females.
• The moderating influence of region existed in IGD and SMA.
• Studies of IGD and SMA may unmask features lost in studies of internet addiction.
Abstract: Males have been proposed to be more vulnerable to internet addiction (IA) than females. However, males and females may differ with respect to specific patterns and types of internet usage and related IA. To investigate further, a meta-analysis was conducted to investigate gender-related differences in internet gaming disorder (IGD) and social media addiction (SMA). The current meta-analysis aimed to quantify gender-related effect sizes relating to IGD and SMA, examine potential moderating influences of regions and other possible confounds, and compare the findings with generalized IA at the country level. The meta-analysis comprised 53 effect sizes with 82,440 individuals from 21 countries/regions for IGD, and 41 effect sizes with 58,336 individuals from 22 countries/regions for SMA. A random-effects model confirmed important gender-specific distinctions as men were more likely to exhibit IGD than women (g = 0.479) and less likely to exhibit SMA than women (g = −0.202). Additional moderator analyses revealed that effect sizes of IGD and SMA were larger in Europe and the Americas than in Asia. Further analyses indicated that the effect sizes of gender-related differences in IGD and SMA at the country-level were significantly larger than those in generalized IA, which suggests that gender-related differences in specific IAs may be underestimated in the “umbrella” of generalized IA. Results have implications for explaining why males and females may become addicted to internet use through different pathways.
Highlights
• Gender differences exist globally in specific internet use behaviors/disorders.
• Higher levels of internet gaming disorder (IGD) exist in males.
• Higher levels of social media addiction (SMA) exist in females.
• The moderating influence of region existed in IGD and SMA.
• Studies of IGD and SMA may unmask features lost in studies of internet addiction.
Abstract: Males have been proposed to be more vulnerable to internet addiction (IA) than females. However, males and females may differ with respect to specific patterns and types of internet usage and related IA. To investigate further, a meta-analysis was conducted to investigate gender-related differences in internet gaming disorder (IGD) and social media addiction (SMA). The current meta-analysis aimed to quantify gender-related effect sizes relating to IGD and SMA, examine potential moderating influences of regions and other possible confounds, and compare the findings with generalized IA at the country level. The meta-analysis comprised 53 effect sizes with 82,440 individuals from 21 countries/regions for IGD, and 41 effect sizes with 58,336 individuals from 22 countries/regions for SMA. A random-effects model confirmed important gender-specific distinctions as men were more likely to exhibit IGD than women (g = 0.479) and less likely to exhibit SMA than women (g = −0.202). Additional moderator analyses revealed that effect sizes of IGD and SMA were larger in Europe and the Americas than in Asia. Further analyses indicated that the effect sizes of gender-related differences in IGD and SMA at the country-level were significantly larger than those in generalized IA, which suggests that gender-related differences in specific IAs may be underestimated in the “umbrella” of generalized IA. Results have implications for explaining why males and females may become addicted to internet use through different pathways.
Quantile-Specific Heritability of Intakes of Alcohol but not Other Macronutrients
Quantile-Specific Heritability of Intakes of Alcohol but not Other Macronutrients. Paul T. Williams. Behavior Genetics (2020), Jul 13 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10519-020-10005-z
Abstract: Genetic heritability (h2) of alcohol use is reported to be greater in rural dwellers, distressed marriages, low socioeconomic status, in girls who are unmarried or lacking closeness with their parents or religious upbringing, in less-educated men, and in adolescents with peers using alcohol. However, these are all risk factors for heavy drinking, and the greater heritability could be due to quantile-dependent expressivity, i.e., h2 dependent upon whether the phenotype (alcohol intake) is high or low relative to its distribution. Quantile regression showed that h2 estimated from the offspring-parent regression slope increased significantly from lowest to highest gram/day of alcohol consumption (0.006 ± 0.001 per percent, P = 1.1 × 10−7). Heritability at the 90th percentile of the sample distribution (0.557 ± 0.116) was 4.5-fold greater than at the 10th percentile (0.122 ± 0.037). Heritabilities for intakes of other macronutrients were not quantile-dependent. Thus quantile-dependent expressivity may explain the higher estimated heritability associated with risk factors for high alcohol consumption.
Abstract: Genetic heritability (h2) of alcohol use is reported to be greater in rural dwellers, distressed marriages, low socioeconomic status, in girls who are unmarried or lacking closeness with their parents or religious upbringing, in less-educated men, and in adolescents with peers using alcohol. However, these are all risk factors for heavy drinking, and the greater heritability could be due to quantile-dependent expressivity, i.e., h2 dependent upon whether the phenotype (alcohol intake) is high or low relative to its distribution. Quantile regression showed that h2 estimated from the offspring-parent regression slope increased significantly from lowest to highest gram/day of alcohol consumption (0.006 ± 0.001 per percent, P = 1.1 × 10−7). Heritability at the 90th percentile of the sample distribution (0.557 ± 0.116) was 4.5-fold greater than at the 10th percentile (0.122 ± 0.037). Heritabilities for intakes of other macronutrients were not quantile-dependent. Thus quantile-dependent expressivity may explain the higher estimated heritability associated with risk factors for high alcohol consumption.
White Americans’ expressed anti-Black & anti-Hispanic prejudice declined after Trump’s political emergence; results suggest the limits of racially charged rhetoric’s capacity to heighten prejudice among Whites
The Rise of Trump, The Fall of Prejudice? Tracking White Americans’ Racial Attitudes Via A Panel Survey, 2008–2018. Daniel J Hopkins, Samantha Washington. Public Opinion Quarterly, Volume 84, Issue 1, Spring 2020, Pages 119–140, June 11 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfaa004
Abstract: In his campaign and first few years in office, Donald Trump consistently defied contemporary norms by using explicit, negative rhetoric targeting ethnic/racial minorities. Did this rhetoric lead White Americans to express more or less prejudiced views of African Americans or Hispanics, whether through changing norms around racial prejudice or other mechanisms? We assess that question using a thirteen-wave panel conducted with a population-based sample of Americans between 2008 and 2018. We find that via most measures, White Americans’ expressed anti-Black and anti-Hispanic prejudice declined after Trump’s political emergence, and we can rule out even small increases in the expression of prejudice. These results suggest the limits of racially charged rhetoric’s capacity to heighten prejudice among White Americans overall. They also indicate that rather than being a fixed predisposition, prejudice can shift by reacting against changing presidential rhetoric.
Abstract: In his campaign and first few years in office, Donald Trump consistently defied contemporary norms by using explicit, negative rhetoric targeting ethnic/racial minorities. Did this rhetoric lead White Americans to express more or less prejudiced views of African Americans or Hispanics, whether through changing norms around racial prejudice or other mechanisms? We assess that question using a thirteen-wave panel conducted with a population-based sample of Americans between 2008 and 2018. We find that via most measures, White Americans’ expressed anti-Black and anti-Hispanic prejudice declined after Trump’s political emergence, and we can rule out even small increases in the expression of prejudice. These results suggest the limits of racially charged rhetoric’s capacity to heighten prejudice among White Americans overall. They also indicate that rather than being a fixed predisposition, prejudice can shift by reacting against changing presidential rhetoric.
Sunday, July 12, 2020
Sexual activity appears to be a health indicator of all-cause and cancer mortality in US middle-aged adults in a dose-response manner
Cao C, Yang L, Xu T, et al. Trends in Sexual Activity and Associations With All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality Among US Adults. J Sex Med 2020;XX:XXX–XXX. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2020.05.028
Abstract
Background Sexual activity can be referred to as a health behavior and may also act as an indicator of health status.
Aim To evaluate temporal trends in sexual activity and to examine associations of sexual activity with all-cause and cause-specific mortality risk.
Methods We examined the trends and prevalence of sexual activity and association of sexual activity with all-cause and cause-specific mortality in a nationally representative sample using data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2005 to 2016 and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2014 Linked Mortality File (through December 31, 2015).
Outcomes All-cause, cardiovascular disease, and cancer mortality.
Results A total of 15,269 US adults (mean age, 39.1 years [standard error, 0.18 years]) were included in the trend analysis. In the 2015-2016 cycle, while 71.7% (95% CI, 67.7–75.7%) US adults aged 20-59 years engaged in sexual activity ≥ 12 times/year (monthly), only 36.1% (95% CI, 31.6–40.7%) of them engaged in sexual activity ≥ 52 times/year (weekly). Since the 2005–2006 cycle, the estimated prevalence of sexual activity, ≥52 times/year and ≥12 times/year, were both stable over time among overall and each age group (all P for trend >0.1). During a median follow-up of 5.7 years (range, 1–11 years) and 71,960 person-years of observation, among 12,598 participants with eligible information on mortality status, 228 deaths occurred, including 29 associated with cardiovascular disease and 62 associated with cancer. Overall, participants with higher sexual activity frequency were at a lower risk of all-cause death in a dose-response manner (P for trend = 0.020) during the follow-up period. In addition, the multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios for all-cause mortality, CVD mortality, cancer mortality, and other cause mortality among participants who had sex ≥52 times/year compared with those having sex 0–1 time/year were 0.51 (95% CI, 0.34 to 0.76), 0.79 (95% CI, 0.19 to 3.21), 0.31 (95% CI, 0.11 to 0.84), and 0.52 (95% CI, 0.28 to 0.96), respectively.
Clinical Implications Sexual activity appears to be a health indicator of all-cause and cancer mortality in US middle-aged adults.
Strengths & Limitations Clear strengths of the present study include the large representative sample of the noninstitutionalized US population as well as the identification of precise estimates in relation to sexual activity and mortality. However, because of the observational nature of the study design, causality could not be determined.
Conclusions Sexual activity was found to be associated with a lower risk of mortality from all cause and cancer.
Key Words: Sexual HealthNHANESCancerMortalitySexual Activity
Abstract
Background Sexual activity can be referred to as a health behavior and may also act as an indicator of health status.
Aim To evaluate temporal trends in sexual activity and to examine associations of sexual activity with all-cause and cause-specific mortality risk.
Methods We examined the trends and prevalence of sexual activity and association of sexual activity with all-cause and cause-specific mortality in a nationally representative sample using data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2005 to 2016 and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2014 Linked Mortality File (through December 31, 2015).
Outcomes All-cause, cardiovascular disease, and cancer mortality.
Results A total of 15,269 US adults (mean age, 39.1 years [standard error, 0.18 years]) were included in the trend analysis. In the 2015-2016 cycle, while 71.7% (95% CI, 67.7–75.7%) US adults aged 20-59 years engaged in sexual activity ≥ 12 times/year (monthly), only 36.1% (95% CI, 31.6–40.7%) of them engaged in sexual activity ≥ 52 times/year (weekly). Since the 2005–2006 cycle, the estimated prevalence of sexual activity, ≥52 times/year and ≥12 times/year, were both stable over time among overall and each age group (all P for trend >0.1). During a median follow-up of 5.7 years (range, 1–11 years) and 71,960 person-years of observation, among 12,598 participants with eligible information on mortality status, 228 deaths occurred, including 29 associated with cardiovascular disease and 62 associated with cancer. Overall, participants with higher sexual activity frequency were at a lower risk of all-cause death in a dose-response manner (P for trend = 0.020) during the follow-up period. In addition, the multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios for all-cause mortality, CVD mortality, cancer mortality, and other cause mortality among participants who had sex ≥52 times/year compared with those having sex 0–1 time/year were 0.51 (95% CI, 0.34 to 0.76), 0.79 (95% CI, 0.19 to 3.21), 0.31 (95% CI, 0.11 to 0.84), and 0.52 (95% CI, 0.28 to 0.96), respectively.
Clinical Implications Sexual activity appears to be a health indicator of all-cause and cancer mortality in US middle-aged adults.
Strengths & Limitations Clear strengths of the present study include the large representative sample of the noninstitutionalized US population as well as the identification of precise estimates in relation to sexual activity and mortality. However, because of the observational nature of the study design, causality could not be determined.
Conclusions Sexual activity was found to be associated with a lower risk of mortality from all cause and cancer.
Key Words: Sexual HealthNHANESCancerMortalitySexual Activity
Attributions of Democratic vs Republican blame or responsibility for anti‐Semitism & perceptions of threat are primarily explained by political ideology & partisan vote choice over & above awareness, engagement, or personal experience
Polarization and American Jews: The Partisan Debate Over Attribution of Blame and Responsibility for Rising Anti‐Semitism in the United States. Amy B. Becker. Social Science Quarterly, July 4 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12829
Abstract
Objective: The research considers the relative influence of political ideology and partisan vote choice on perceptions of Democratic versus Republican responsibility for the level of anti‐Semitism in the United States and the perception of anti‐Semitic threat posed by the extreme political right versus the extreme political left.
Methods: Analysis of data from the American Jewish Committee's 2019 American Jewish Attitudes About Anti‐Semitism Survey (N = 1,283 Jewish Americans ages 18+).
Results: Hierarchical OLS regression shows that attributions of Democratic versus Republican blame or responsibility for anti‐Semitism and perceptions of threat are primarily explained by political ideology and partisan vote choice over and above awareness, engagement, or personal experience with anti‐Semitism.
Conclusion: The implications of the findings are considered in light of the contemporary political context shaped by Donald Trump's December 2019 “Executive Order on Combating Anti‐Semitism,” the rise of anti‐Semitic violence in the United States, and the increasing support for the Boycott, Divest, Sanctions movement.
Abstract
Objective: The research considers the relative influence of political ideology and partisan vote choice on perceptions of Democratic versus Republican responsibility for the level of anti‐Semitism in the United States and the perception of anti‐Semitic threat posed by the extreme political right versus the extreme political left.
Methods: Analysis of data from the American Jewish Committee's 2019 American Jewish Attitudes About Anti‐Semitism Survey (N = 1,283 Jewish Americans ages 18+).
Results: Hierarchical OLS regression shows that attributions of Democratic versus Republican blame or responsibility for anti‐Semitism and perceptions of threat are primarily explained by political ideology and partisan vote choice over and above awareness, engagement, or personal experience with anti‐Semitism.
Conclusion: The implications of the findings are considered in light of the contemporary political context shaped by Donald Trump's December 2019 “Executive Order on Combating Anti‐Semitism,” the rise of anti‐Semitic violence in the United States, and the increasing support for the Boycott, Divest, Sanctions movement.
Saturday, July 11, 2020
Participants accepted more offers, including more unfair offers, from surgical mask-wearing opponents than from opponents without a mask; effect was enhanced when participants ascribed more altruistic motives
Fatfouta, Ramzi, and Yulia Oganian. 2020. “Bargaining Under Social Distancing Requirements: Effects of Face Masks on Socio-economic Decision-making in the COVID-19 Pandemic.” PsyArXiv. July 10. doi:10.31234/osf.io/cn7by
Abstract: Face masks play a pivotal role in the control and prevention of respiratory diseases, such as the novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Despite their widespread use, it is not known how face masks affect human social interaction. In this behavioral economics study (N = 475), we examined how mask-wearing modulates individuals’ likelihood of acceptance of unfair monetary offers in an iterated social exchange. Overall, participants accepted more offers, including more unfair offers, from mask-wearing opponents than from opponents without a mask. This effect was enhanced when participants ascribed more altruistic motives to their interaction partner. Importantly, this pattern of results was only present for surgical face masks, but not when a non-medical cloth face covering was used. This is the first study to uncover a new phenomenon, the face-mask effect, in which face masks can alter human social behavior.
Abstract: Face masks play a pivotal role in the control and prevention of respiratory diseases, such as the novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Despite their widespread use, it is not known how face masks affect human social interaction. In this behavioral economics study (N = 475), we examined how mask-wearing modulates individuals’ likelihood of acceptance of unfair monetary offers in an iterated social exchange. Overall, participants accepted more offers, including more unfair offers, from mask-wearing opponents than from opponents without a mask. This effect was enhanced when participants ascribed more altruistic motives to their interaction partner. Importantly, this pattern of results was only present for surgical face masks, but not when a non-medical cloth face covering was used. This is the first study to uncover a new phenomenon, the face-mask effect, in which face masks can alter human social behavior.
In the mid-2000s, "hate" appears with a relative frequency that is about 70pct higher than in 1980
Haslam, N., & Murphy, S. C. (2020). Hate, dehumanization, and “hate”. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Perspectives on hate: How it originates, develops, manifests, and spreads (p. 27–41). American Psychological Association, May 2020. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000180-002
Abstract: Hate is a subject that is always topical, but it has recently become especially significant. This chapter explores the concept of hate from two distinct angles in the hope of clarifying what it is and what it is not. The first part examines the academic conceptualization of hate, specifically the relationship between hate and dehumanization. These phenomena often appear to be tightly entwined, sometimes to the point where dehumanization comes to be seen as a part of hate's signature. The second part of the chapter explores how hate is conceptualized by laypeople (i.e., nonacademics) and how the one concept of "hate" is understood in different ways by different people. It explores variations in the breadth or inclusiveness of the concept of "hate": the range of phenomena that people believe exemplify it. The chapter shows that members of some social groups hold much more expansive definitions of "hate" than others.
Abstract: Hate is a subject that is always topical, but it has recently become especially significant. This chapter explores the concept of hate from two distinct angles in the hope of clarifying what it is and what it is not. The first part examines the academic conceptualization of hate, specifically the relationship between hate and dehumanization. These phenomena often appear to be tightly entwined, sometimes to the point where dehumanization comes to be seen as a part of hate's signature. The second part of the chapter explores how hate is conceptualized by laypeople (i.e., nonacademics) and how the one concept of "hate" is understood in different ways by different people. It explores variations in the breadth or inclusiveness of the concept of "hate": the range of phenomena that people believe exemplify it. The chapter shows that members of some social groups hold much more expansive definitions of "hate" than others.
Media coverage over time (2011‐2016) has used more negative tone in discussing police‐citizen interactions; relative to other jobs, policing was categorized as a pervasively stigmatized job
Is Policing Becoming a Tainted Profession? Media, Public Perceptions, and Implications. Deepshikha Chatterjee Ann Marie Ryan. Journal of Organizational Behavior, July 10 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2471
Summary: Stigmatized professions are those where physical, social, and/or moral taints are applied. Stigma theorists hold that stigma is socially communicated and changes over time, but it is unclear if stigma content can be applied to those who are seen as powerful. Two studies examined how the impact of socio‐political discourses on policing, a profession that carries legitimate power, on the tainting of the profession and distrust in policing. In an examination of archival news media clips on policing (N = 200), results show that media coverage over time (between 2011‐2016) has used more negative tone in discussing police‐citizen interactions, and these findings varied by conservative versus liberal media. Importantly, across media sources, taints were ascribed to policing. In a second survey study, individuals directly ascribed taints to policing (N = 169). Relative to other jobs, policing was categorized as a pervasively stigmatized job (i.e., high frequency and strong potency of taints were applied). It was also found that those who discussed media stories tended to distrust police more. Implications for efforts to recruit, select, and train officers, and to improve police‐community relations are discussed; findings may also generalize to other public and community facing professions.
Summary: Stigmatized professions are those where physical, social, and/or moral taints are applied. Stigma theorists hold that stigma is socially communicated and changes over time, but it is unclear if stigma content can be applied to those who are seen as powerful. Two studies examined how the impact of socio‐political discourses on policing, a profession that carries legitimate power, on the tainting of the profession and distrust in policing. In an examination of archival news media clips on policing (N = 200), results show that media coverage over time (between 2011‐2016) has used more negative tone in discussing police‐citizen interactions, and these findings varied by conservative versus liberal media. Importantly, across media sources, taints were ascribed to policing. In a second survey study, individuals directly ascribed taints to policing (N = 169). Relative to other jobs, policing was categorized as a pervasively stigmatized job (i.e., high frequency and strong potency of taints were applied). It was also found that those who discussed media stories tended to distrust police more. Implications for efforts to recruit, select, and train officers, and to improve police‐community relations are discussed; findings may also generalize to other public and community facing professions.
Although conflict (operationalized as one partner doing something the other did not like) was unassociated with the likelihood of sex on a given day, it predicted a lower likelihood the following day
Kiss and Makeup? Examining the Co-occurrence of Conflict and Sex. Jessica A. Maxwell & Andrea L. Meltzer. Archives of Sexual Behavior (2020). Jul 10 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-020-01779-8
Abstract: Although conflict and sex frequently occur in relationships, little research has examined their interconnectedness. Some evidence suggests their co-occurrence can benefit relationships, whereas other evidence suggests the opposite. We sought to clarify such contrasting evidence by conducting a dyadic daily-diary study of 107 newlywed couples that included a 6-month follow-up assessment. Although conflict (operationalized as one partner doing something the other did not like) was unassociated with the likelihood of sex on a given day, it predicted a lower likelihood the following day. Moreover, despite the fact that sex co-occurring with (vs. occurring independent of) conflict was less enjoyable, it partially reduced the negative effects of conflict on both spouses’ daily relationship quality. The extent to which sex and conflict co-occurred was unassociated with intimates’ changes in marital satisfaction 6 months later. The implications of engaging in post-conflict sex are nuanced: although such sex is less enjoyable, it temporarily buffers relationship quality in that moment.
Abstract: Although conflict and sex frequently occur in relationships, little research has examined their interconnectedness. Some evidence suggests their co-occurrence can benefit relationships, whereas other evidence suggests the opposite. We sought to clarify such contrasting evidence by conducting a dyadic daily-diary study of 107 newlywed couples that included a 6-month follow-up assessment. Although conflict (operationalized as one partner doing something the other did not like) was unassociated with the likelihood of sex on a given day, it predicted a lower likelihood the following day. Moreover, despite the fact that sex co-occurring with (vs. occurring independent of) conflict was less enjoyable, it partially reduced the negative effects of conflict on both spouses’ daily relationship quality. The extent to which sex and conflict co-occurred was unassociated with intimates’ changes in marital satisfaction 6 months later. The implications of engaging in post-conflict sex are nuanced: although such sex is less enjoyable, it temporarily buffers relationship quality in that moment.
Concern for distressed others was seen early in the first year of life, long before previous theories assumed: Empathic concern was moderately consistent across both situation & age, from as early as 3‐months
Caring Babies: Concern for Others in Distress during Infancy. Maayan Davidov Yael Paz Ronit Roth‐Hanania Florina Uzefovsky Tal Orlitsky David Mankuta Carolyn Zahn‐Waxler. Developmental Science, July 10 2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13016
Abstract: Concern for distressed others is a highly valued human capacity, but little is known about its early ontogeny. Theoretical accounts of empathy development have emphasized stages, but this has been called into question. This study sheds new light on four key issues: onset, consistency, development, and predictive power of early manifestations of concern for others. Three‐months‐old Israei infants (N=165) were followed longitudinally at ages 6, 12, and 18‐months, and their observed responses to others’ distress were assessed. Concern for distressed others was seen early in the first year of life, long before previous theories assumed. Empathic concern was moderately consistent across both situation and age, from as early as 3‐months. Concern for others grew only modestly with age, plateauing during the second year, whereas prosocial behavior increased rapidly during the second year. Early individual differences in concern for others predicted later prosocial behavior on behalf of distressed others. Findings underscore the early roots of caring, and appear to refute assumptions of prior stage theories of empathy development, by showing that concern for others develops much earlier and more gradually than previously assumed.
Abstract: Concern for distressed others is a highly valued human capacity, but little is known about its early ontogeny. Theoretical accounts of empathy development have emphasized stages, but this has been called into question. This study sheds new light on four key issues: onset, consistency, development, and predictive power of early manifestations of concern for others. Three‐months‐old Israei infants (N=165) were followed longitudinally at ages 6, 12, and 18‐months, and their observed responses to others’ distress were assessed. Concern for distressed others was seen early in the first year of life, long before previous theories assumed. Empathic concern was moderately consistent across both situation and age, from as early as 3‐months. Concern for others grew only modestly with age, plateauing during the second year, whereas prosocial behavior increased rapidly during the second year. Early individual differences in concern for others predicted later prosocial behavior on behalf of distressed others. Findings underscore the early roots of caring, and appear to refute assumptions of prior stage theories of empathy development, by showing that concern for others develops much earlier and more gradually than previously assumed.
Perceptions of fake news prevalence, partisanship strength, and political interest were associated with a higher likelihood of providing a politicized and accusatory response about fake news
“Fake News is Anything They Say!” – Conceptualization and Weaponization of Fake News Among the American Public. Chau Tong, Hyungjin Gill,Jianing Li, Sebastián Valenzuela & Hernando Rojas. Mass Communication and Society, Jul 7 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1789661
ABSTRACT: This study examines the articulation of public opinion about so-called fake news using a national survey (N = 510) of U.S. adults conducted in 2018. We coded respondents’ open-ended answers about what is “fake news” and found that while some respondents adopt a politically neutral, descriptive definition, others provided a partisan, accusatory answer. Specifically, the weaponization of fake news is evident in the way respondents use the term to blame adversarial political and media targets. Perceptions of fake news prevalence, partisanship strength, and political interest were associated with a higher likelihood of providing a politicized and accusatory response about fake news. Accusations were polarized as a function of partisan identity and positively correlated with affective polarization. Results are discussed in light of the linguistic distinction of the term and what it means in the context of news media distrust and polarization.
Keywords: Misinformation, fake news, partisanship, public opinion, trust in media, hostile media perceptions, hostile media effect, affective polarization
ABSTRACT: This study examines the articulation of public opinion about so-called fake news using a national survey (N = 510) of U.S. adults conducted in 2018. We coded respondents’ open-ended answers about what is “fake news” and found that while some respondents adopt a politically neutral, descriptive definition, others provided a partisan, accusatory answer. Specifically, the weaponization of fake news is evident in the way respondents use the term to blame adversarial political and media targets. Perceptions of fake news prevalence, partisanship strength, and political interest were associated with a higher likelihood of providing a politicized and accusatory response about fake news. Accusations were polarized as a function of partisan identity and positively correlated with affective polarization. Results are discussed in light of the linguistic distinction of the term and what it means in the context of news media distrust and polarization.
Keywords: Misinformation, fake news, partisanship, public opinion, trust in media, hostile media perceptions, hostile media effect, affective polarization
Friday, July 10, 2020
Heterosexual women placed more value on orgasm frequency and the frequency of sex than lesbian and bisexual women
Female Sexual Satisfaction and Sexual Identity. Laura L. Holt , Y. Barry Chung, Erick Janssen & Zoë D. Peterson. The Journal of Sex Research, Jul 9 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1784827
ABSTRACT: This study addressed three goals related to better understanding the factors that contribute to female sexual satisfaction: (a) exploring differences in factors that contribute to perceptions of sexual satisfaction among women with varying sexual identities, (b) evaluating an existing measure of sexual satisfaction among women with diverse sexual identities, and (c) developing potential items for a future expanded measure of the factors contributing to sexual satisfaction. Participants were 996 heterosexual women, 333 bisexual women, and 204 lesbians. They completed an online survey that included a demographic questionnaire, an item measuring sexual satisfaction, an open-ended question about factors contributing to sexual satisfaction, the newly-developed Potential Sexual Satisfaction Factors, and the New Sexual Satisfaction Scale (NSSS). A multinomial regression, an internal consistency analysis, and qualitative analyses were performed to examine the three research questions. Several important differences in factors related to sexual satisfaction were found as a function of sexual identity. In particular, several of the factors that contributed to bisexual women’s sexual satisfaction were different than those that contributed to heterosexual and lesbian women’s satisfaction. These findings point to the importance of considering sexual identity when researching sexual satisfaction and when providing interventions to improve sexual satisfaction.
ABSTRACT: This study addressed three goals related to better understanding the factors that contribute to female sexual satisfaction: (a) exploring differences in factors that contribute to perceptions of sexual satisfaction among women with varying sexual identities, (b) evaluating an existing measure of sexual satisfaction among women with diverse sexual identities, and (c) developing potential items for a future expanded measure of the factors contributing to sexual satisfaction. Participants were 996 heterosexual women, 333 bisexual women, and 204 lesbians. They completed an online survey that included a demographic questionnaire, an item measuring sexual satisfaction, an open-ended question about factors contributing to sexual satisfaction, the newly-developed Potential Sexual Satisfaction Factors, and the New Sexual Satisfaction Scale (NSSS). A multinomial regression, an internal consistency analysis, and qualitative analyses were performed to examine the three research questions. Several important differences in factors related to sexual satisfaction were found as a function of sexual identity. In particular, several of the factors that contributed to bisexual women’s sexual satisfaction were different than those that contributed to heterosexual and lesbian women’s satisfaction. These findings point to the importance of considering sexual identity when researching sexual satisfaction and when providing interventions to improve sexual satisfaction.
Across 58 published studies in 23 species, we find strong evidence that animals copy the mate choice of others
A meta-analysis of factors influencing the strength of mate-choice copying in animals. Alice D Davies, Zenobia Lewis, Liam R Dougherty. Behavioral Ecology, araa064, July 9 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/araa064
Abstract: Mate-choice copying is a form of social learning in which an individual’s choice of mate is influenced by the apparent choices of other individuals of the same sex and has been observed in more than 20 species across a broad taxonomic range. Though fitness benefits of copying have proven difficult to measure, theory suggests that copying should not be beneficial for all species or contexts. However, the factors influencing the evolution and expression of copying have proven difficult to resolve. We systematically searched the literature for studies of mate-choice copying in nonhuman animals and, then, performed a phylogenetically controlled meta-analysis to explore which factors influence the expression of copying across species. Across 58 published studies in 23 species, we find strong evidence that animals copy the mate choice of others. The strength of copying was significantly influenced by taxonomic group; however, sample size limitations mean it is difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding copying in mammals and arthropods. The strength of copying was also influenced by experimental design: copying was stronger when choosers were tested before and after witnessing a conspecific’s mate choice compared to when choosers with social information were compared to choosers without. Importantly, we did not detect any difference in the strength of copying between males and females or in relation to the rate of multiple mating. Our search also highlights that more empirical work is needed to investigate copying in a broader range of species, especially those with differing mating systems and levels of reproductive investment.
Abstract: Mate-choice copying is a form of social learning in which an individual’s choice of mate is influenced by the apparent choices of other individuals of the same sex and has been observed in more than 20 species across a broad taxonomic range. Though fitness benefits of copying have proven difficult to measure, theory suggests that copying should not be beneficial for all species or contexts. However, the factors influencing the evolution and expression of copying have proven difficult to resolve. We systematically searched the literature for studies of mate-choice copying in nonhuman animals and, then, performed a phylogenetically controlled meta-analysis to explore which factors influence the expression of copying across species. Across 58 published studies in 23 species, we find strong evidence that animals copy the mate choice of others. The strength of copying was significantly influenced by taxonomic group; however, sample size limitations mean it is difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding copying in mammals and arthropods. The strength of copying was also influenced by experimental design: copying was stronger when choosers were tested before and after witnessing a conspecific’s mate choice compared to when choosers with social information were compared to choosers without. Importantly, we did not detect any difference in the strength of copying between males and females or in relation to the rate of multiple mating. Our search also highlights that more empirical work is needed to investigate copying in a broader range of species, especially those with differing mating systems and levels of reproductive investment.
DISCUSSION
We performed a meta-analysis of 158 effect sizes from 58 published studies of mate-choice copying in nonhuman animals. Overall, we find strong evidence that animals copy the mating preferences of others. The overall standardized mean difference was 0.57 (95% CI = 0.34–0.81), which is considered a medium effect (Cohen 1992). This converts to a mean odds ratio of 2.83 so that the observers in this sample are almost three times as likely to choose a partner or phenotype that they previously observed in a positive sexual interaction with a rival compared to individuals with no social information. This result suggests that social information can have a significant influence on animal mating preferences across a wide range of species. Further, the strength of copying observed is similar to that reported in the recent meta-analysis of female copying by Jones and DuVal (2019: a mean odds ratio of 2.71), of which our data set overlaps. We also detected significant variation in the degree of copying across species, which was partly explained by taxonomic group: copying was strongest for mammals and weakest for arthropods. The strength of copying was also influenced by the type of experiment used to test for copying: copying was stronger when studies compared mating behavior before and after the presentation of social information in contrast to studies in which separate control and social treatment groups were compared. Interestingly, we did not detect any difference in copying between males and females or in relation to the rate of multiple mating. We also detected little evidence for publication bias against nonsignificant results.
Whereas evidence suggests that mate-choice copying is taxonomically widespread, a small number of model species are overrepresented in our data set and in the literature more generally: of the 89 studies identified in our search, 20 focus on guppies, 9 on Japanese quail, and 9 on D. melanogaster. Despite this, species identity explained a small proportion of the variation in effect size in our analysis. This confirms that copying is not driven by a few influential species and that within-species variability in effect size is high. Phylogenetic history explained only a small amount of variation in effect sizes, indicating that any similarities between species are not due to them being closely related evolutionarily. This is unsurprising, given the large evolutionary distances between the species in the data set (with the exception of species in the Poeciliidae) and the evolutionary lability of behavioral traits (Blomberg et al. 2003). Nevertheless, we did detect differences in the degree of copying when we sorted the species in our data set into four broad taxonomic groups: mammals, birds, fishes, and arthropods (incorporating insects, arachnids, and crustaceans). The degree of copying was highest for mammals, followed by birds and fishes, and then lowest for arthropods. This finding could be explained by broad-scale differences in cognitive ability, ecological conditions, or social group size. However, these results should be interpreted with caution: first, because the number of effect sizes for mammals and arthropods was small and, second, because the small number of species tested across the entire data set means it is unclear how generalizable these results are. Importantly, we need more tests of copying in species groups other than those highlighted here. For example, to our knowledge, there have been no experimental tests of copying in amphibians, reptiles, or nonhuman primates.
We found that the type of experimental design significantly influenced the degree of copying. Copying was stronger for studies with a “before-and-after” design compared to studies with separate control and social treatment groups (no pretest). This is the opposite of what we predicted based on our hypothesis that no pretest studies may often underestimate preferences in the absence of social information. We note, however, that our categories of “before-and-after” and “no pretest” designs mostly align with the “random” and “unattractive” categories used by Jones and Duval (2019), which relate to whether the study used a reversal paradigm to test for copying (the unattractive category). The alignment comes from the fact that the reversal paradigm is a subset of the “before-and-after” test. Accordingly, Jones and DuVal (2019) found that copying was stronger when using a reversal paradigm, which is consistent with our result shown here. One potential explanation for the observed effect could be related to the fact that before-and-after designs test each individual twice, potentially in quick succession. This provides the opportunity for observers to gain experience that could influence their choice in a nonrandom way. For example, individuals may become choosier with successive encounters because they have more information on the quality of mates in the population, they perceive mate density to be higher, or because they are attempting to “trade-up” from previous mates (e.g., Pitcher et al. 2003).
There were several moderators which did not significantly influence the degree of copying. For example, copying was performed to a similar extent in animals born in the wild or in captivity. This, first, confirms that mate-choice copying is not an artifact of captivity—it is a real behavior that exists in wild populations. However, the recent meta-analysis by Jones and DuVal (2019) found that females copied more when tested in the wild compared to when tested in captivity. This discrepancy likely arises because our moderator focuses on observer history prior to, but not during, the behavioral tests and suggests that the environment during the test is more important for influencing copying behavior. Copying was not influenced by the mating rate of the species tested. This null result could be explained partly by the lack of data on species with low rates of multiple mating, and we suggest that more studies should be carried out on such species. Importantly, any conclusions relating to this moderator may also be further limited by the fact that species with low rates of multiple mating are taxonomically limited in our sample, occurring only in birds and arthropods. Nevertheless, mate-choice copying has been shown in at least two bird species that show some form of social monogamy and biparental care (zebra finches and Japanese quail), even though theory suggests that copying should not be favored because of the diminishing returns associated with sharing a mate that provides direct benefits or parental care (Vakirtzis and Roberts 2009). We also found no difference in the strength of generalized versus individual copying. These two forms of copying may require different cognitive abilities, but whether this leads to differences in the strength of copying is not clear. Crucially, the relative prevalence, and strength, of these two forms of copying has important evolutionary consequences. Both forms of copying can widen the gap between attractive and unattractive males (Leadbeater 2009), create frequency-dependent bias in mate choice (Santos et al. 2014) and support the invasion of new traits into a population (Santos et al. 2017). However, because generalized copying allows learned preferences to be applied to multiple mates, it can lead to the cultural transmission of preferences, and so has the potential to be a much stronger evolutionary force than individual copying.
Most surprisingly, we found no evidence that males copy less than females. This result is unexpected as males may be substantially increasing their exposure to sperm competition by copying the mate choices of their rivals (Simmons 2001; Vakirtzis and Roberts 2009). In support of this, there is widespread evidence that males often prefer to mate with virgin females if given the choice (Bonduriansky 2001; Simmons 2001). Again, this could be partly explained by the relatively small number of studies testing male copying. Another possibility is that when faced with previously mated females, males may ejaculate more sperm as a defense against combat sperm competition, instead of rejecting a mating opportunity (Simmons 2001; Kelly and Jennions 2011). The ability of males to strategically allocate sperm in this way has the potential to reduce the costs of copying a rival’s choice. Copying could also be beneficial to males if they can reduce the risk of being copied themselves, perhaps by mating or courting out of view of rival males (Simmons 2001; Brown et al. 2012; le Roux et al. 2013) or by mating with less-preferred females when rivals are present as a form of deception (also known as the “audience effect”: Plath et al. 2008; Castellano et al. 2016; Witte et al. 2018). Alternatively, male mate-choice copying may be likely when males face high costs of reproduction as appears to be the case for the fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare, the three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus, and the broadnosed pipefish Syngnathus typhle (Witte et al. 2015). Indeed, mate-choice copying studies have often been performed using species with paternal care (fish and zebra finches) and, therefore, high male reproductive investment. It will, therefore, be useful to test for copying in species that exhibit a broader range of mating systems and reproductive strategies than that shown by the current available sample.
Several other aspects of experimental design did not influence the degree of mate-choice copying. For example, copying was observed regardless of the type of social information available to the observer (whether the demonstrator mated, courted, avoided, or affiliated with a partner), how the observer preference was measured, or whether the demonstrator was allowed to “choose” a target individual or was artificially placed with one. Nevertheless, variations in other aspects of experimental design do have the potential to contribute to some of the unexplained variability in effect sizes seen across studies. For example, for indirect measures of mate choice (Rosenthal 2017), the criteria used to determine mating preferences differ between studies. Vukomanovic and Rodd (2007) conducted mate-choice copying experiments with the sailfin molly P. latipinna using different criteria to investigate how this could influence the measurement of copying. Using the criteria of Dugatkin (1992), where females had to spend over 50% of their time within a 13-cm “preference zone” in front of the male, significant copying was detected. However, using the criteria of Lafleur et al. (1997), where females had to spend 15 consecutive seconds in a 2.5-cm preference zone, no copying was detected. This demonstrates that even when recording the same behaviors, results can differ depending on exactly which methodology is used.
Though several moderators did influence the strength of copying in our sample, most of the heterogeneity in effect size detected (both here and in Jones and DuVal 2019) remains unexplained. This suggests that there are other factors that influence the degree of copying, which we were unable to include in our meta-analysis. In many cases, this is because of the difficulty associated with obtaining good estimates across all species sampled. For example, a potentially important driver of copying, and mate choice in general, is the cost of mate sampling. However, we have very few estimates of the costs of mate sampling and mate choice in any species so that broad-scale comparisons are difficult (Rosenthal 2017). Interestingly, empirical studies that have attempted to indirectly measure this effect, by testing copying in high-cost environments, have failed to find any significant change in copying (Briggs et al. 1996; Dugatkin and Godin 1998). Another key driver of copying is expected to be the ability to assess mate quality, which again will be difficult to accurately estimate for all species. However, empirical tests have found some support for this effect: for example, copying is more likely when mates are more similar in guppies and mollies (Dugatkin 1996; Witte and Ryan 1998). Related to this, a valuable topic for future research would be the nature of memory in the context of mate-choice copying. How long are demonstrations remembered for? How easily are these memories forgotten or overwritten with conflicting experiences?
In summary, this meta-analysis of 58 experimental studies suggests that mate-choice copying is a widespread and robust phenomenon across the animal kingdom. Despite different methodological approaches, the average effect size is very similar to that found in the recent meta-analysis of mate-choice copying by Jones and DuVal (2019), of which our data set overlaps. We found evidence that the amount of copying differs significantly across taxonomic groups and between the two main types of experimental design found in the literature but no evidence that copying is influenced by sex or the rate of multiple mating. Importantly, our systematic review has also revealed areas where more empirical work is needed. Unfortunately, though mate-choice copying has been observed across a wide taxonomic range, most studies are still only performed on a few model species. In addition to uncovering the details of how mate-choice copying operates within a species, time should be taken to investigate how widespread the phenomenon is across the animal kingdom and which aspects of a species’ ecology or biology predispose the evolution of copying.
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