External stressors brought on by COVID-19 were associated with sexual desire among people in relationships, in part due to reports of depressive symptoms

Balzarini, Rhonda N., Amy Muise, Giulia Zoppolat, Amanda N. Gesselman, Justin J. Lehmiller, Justin R. Garcia, Richard B. Slatcher, et al. 2021. “Sexual Desire in the Time of COVID-19: How Covid-related Stressors Are Associated with Sexual Desire in Romantic Relationships.” PsyArXiv. March 26. doi:10.31234/osf.io/nxkgp

Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic and social distancing measures caused widespread social and economic disruptions, resulting in spikes in unemployment and financial instability, along with drastic changes to people's ability to feel socially connected. These changes could have implications on people’s sex lives as external stressors, like those introduced amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, are risk factors for depressive symptoms, which are associated with lower levels of sexual desire. The current research (N = 4,993) examined whether external stressors brought on by COVID-19 were associated with sexual desire among people in relationships (Studies 1-2), and whether this association was, in part, due to reports of depressive symptoms (Study 2). In the period immediately following the onset of the pandemic, more financial concern (Study 1) and worry (Study 2) were associated with higher sexual desire, while other factors, like stress (Studies 1-2), were associated with lower desire. We also followed a subset of participants every two weeks during the initial stages of the pandemic and at times when people reported greater stress, loneliness, financial strain, or worry than their average, they reported greater depressive symptoms, which, was in turn, associated with lower sexual desire. Results suggest that the social isolation and stress resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic has mixed associations with sexual desire at the onset of the pandemic. But over time, when people report heightened COVID-related stressors, like stress and loneliness, they tend to report lower sexual desire for their partner, in part because these stressors are associated with more depressive symptoms.

How the language you speak aligns to your genetic origins and may impact research on your health

Genetic substructure and complex demographic history of South African Bantu speakers. Dhriti Sengupta, Ananyo Choudhury, Cesar Fortes-Lima, Shaun Aron, Gavin Whitelaw, Koen Bostoen, Hilde Gunnink, Natalia Chousou-Polydouri, Peter Delius, Stephen Tollman, F. Xavier Gómez-Olivé, Shane Norris, Felistas Mashinya, Marianne Alberts, AWI-Gen Study, H3Africa Consortium, Scott Hazelhurst, Carina M. Schlebusch & Michèle Ramsay. Nature Communications volume 12, Article number: 2080. Apr 7 2021. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-22207-y

Popular version: How the language you speak aligns to your genetic origins and may impact research on your health (phys.org)

Abstract: South Eastern Bantu-speaking (SEB) groups constitute more than 80% of the population in South Africa. Despite clear linguistic and geographic diversity, the genetic differences between these groups have not been systematically investigated. Based on genome-wide data of over 5000 individuals, representing eight major SEB groups, we provide strong evidence for fine-scale population structure that broadly aligns with geographic distribution and is also congruent with linguistic phylogeny (separation of Nguni, Sotho-Tswana and Tsonga speakers). Although differential Khoe-San admixture plays a key role, the structure persists after Khoe-San ancestry-masking. The timing of admixture, levels of sex-biased gene flow and population size dynamics also highlight differences in the demographic histories of individual groups. The comparisons with five Iron Age farmer genomes further support genetic continuity over ~400 years in certain regions of the country. Simulated trait genome-wide association studies further show that the observed population structure could have major implications for biomedical genomics research in South Africa.

Discussion

More than 40 million South Africans speak one of the nine major South-Eastern Bantu languages as their first language. Notwithstanding clear divisions in the South-Eastern Bantu language phylogeny and geographic stratification of the speakers, very few studies have investigated the genetic differentiation between SEB groups. Based on a large-scale study of over 5000 participants representing eight of the nine major SEB groups in South Africa, we have demonstrated the presence of a robust fine-scale population structure within the SEB groups, which broadly separates genomes of SEB groups into the three major linguistic divisions (Nguni, Sotho-Tswana, and Tsonga), and also reflects the geographic distribution of LMAs to a large extent. The resolution of this structure within the SEB groups was enhanced considerably by taking ethno-linguistic concordance of individuals and their geographic locations into account. However, it needs to be noted that self-identity itself is complex, with about one third of the participants having more than one parent or grand-parent with a different ethnic self-identity. Moreover, while the PCA and PCA-UMAP shows clear population structure, there are exceptions highlighting the fluidity of cultural identity. Thus, self-selected group-identity encompasses significant group-related genetic variability, and it is important to emphasise that cultural identity and genetic variation are not necessarily aligned. Studies on population structure in South Africa should not be seen as justifying the ethnic nationalism generated by the country’s colonial and apartheid past. Our aim was to explore the role of genetic diversity in explaining population history and in health research. We recognise, and our study shows, that self-identity can involve considerable fluidity and that biological reductionist approaches pose dangers for the interpretation of our findings.

In alignment with results from previous studies10,32, our data also shows that differential Khoe-San gene flow plays a major role in the population structure of SEB groups. However, the persistence of the structure even after accounting for differential Khoe-San admixture suggests the contribution of other demographic factors in the genetic differentiation of these groups. The SEB groups start to show clear divergence in population size dynamics from about 40 generations ago. This timeframe converges with the earliest dates of Khoe-San admixture and probably points at the initiation of migration events that gradually separated these groups. On the other hand, a rather wide variation in Khoe-San admixture dates (spanning ~20 generations) among SEB groups possibly reflects the complexity of the settlement of different parts of the country by the ancestral BS populations. Comparison of present-day SEB groups with Iron-Age farmer genomes provided evidence for genetic continuity in a geographic region in Central-East South Africa for at least the last 300–500 years. Our results, while attesting to the well-known pattern of Khoe-San female-biased gene flow, showed notable differences in the extent of this bias among different SEB groups demonstrating that the nature of interaction between Khoe-San and BS could have varied temporally and geographically.

The dataset we generated for this study has provided a much better contextualization for previously sequenced Iron-Age genomes from Southern Africa. The SEB are unique in Africa, as being among the very few populations that contain considerable gene flow from the Khoe-San. These data therefore are of major importance in terms of understanding the interaction between the Khoe-San and other Southern African populations. They will play an important role in providing insights through comparative analyses once more genetic data from hunter-gatherers and ancient genomes from this geographic region become available.

Our analyses including allele frequency comparisons, genome-wide scans for selection and Khoe-San ancestry distribution show the SEB groups to be highly diverged at certain genomic regions. Based on simulated-trait GWAS, we further illustrate that the fine-scale population structure within the SEB groups could impact a GWAS by introducing a large number of false positives. A combination of cautious study design to minimize geographic and ethno-linguistic biases and stringent measures for population structure correction is therefore recommended for GWASs involving SEB groups. Moreover, while GWAS can address the false positives introduced due to population structure using genomic control, PC or other approaches, it is impossible to identify and control for population structure in candidate gene studies. Therefore, utmost care should be taken during study design to ethnically and geographically homogenise samples in order to control for false positives in association studies using limited markers.

A major limitation of our study is that the sampling sites do not cover the full geographic spread of SEB groups in the country, possibly causing some of the groups to be suboptimally represented in our dataset. Nevertheless, our results suggest that we are at a critical point in history where the population structure is still observable with efficient sampling and in-depth ethno-linguistic characterization, even if it is gradually diminishing due to migration and intermingling between different SEB groups. We hope that our findings will motivate studies with larger sample sizes and wider geographic representation to help unravel the demographic events that contributed to the peopling of South Africa.

Pornography use is both ubiquitous and controversial in developed nations

Pornography Use and Psychological Science: A Call for Consideration. Joshua B. Grubbs, Shane W. Kraus. Current Directions in Psychological Science, January 15, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420979594

Abstract: Pornography use is both ubiquitous and controversial in developed nations. Although research related to pornography use has flourished in topical and special-interest journals for several decades, much of this work has remained in the periphery of mainstream interests. The current article reviews how pornography use is likely relevant to various domains within psychological science, particularly emphasizing its significance in relationship research, adolescent-development research, and clinical science. Specifically, pornography use is likely salient to research examining both sexual and romantic satisfaction. Additionally, it is also likely relevant to understanding adolescent sexual development, particularly among sexual-minority populations. Finally, a large body of research suggests that pornography use may become problematic, either because of excessive use or moral incongruence about such use, illustrating its salience in clinical psychological science. Collectively, the current research related to pornography use suggests that it is of interest to multiple domains in psychological science and that its effects can range from positive to neutral to negative.

Keywords: pornography, compulsive sexual behavior, sexually explicit media, media effects, technology

Clinical Concerns About Pornography

Beyond the above domains, there is a growing body of research aimed at illuminating the clinical relevance of pornography use. Various public advocacy groups, religious organizations, activist communities, and even mental health professionals have made claims of pornography’s inherently addictive nature and the growing epidemic of pornography addiction (for a review, see Grubbs, Perry, et al., 2019). Yet there is no consensus in scientific communities as to whether any of these claims are true. Although there is clear evidence that some people report high-frequency use of pornography (Kraus et al., 2016; Kraus & Sweeney, 2019), there is ongoing debate as to what is signified by such patterns of use.

Addiction and dysregulation

Over recent years, there has been much discussion around how to classify high-frequency pornography use. One line of thought suggests that such use of pornography is likely a clinical syndrome that warrants psychiatric diagnosis. Specifically, scholars have proposed classifications such as hypersexual disorder, impulse-control disorder, nonparaphilic compulsive sexual behavior disorder (CSBD), and behavioral addiction to describe individuals reporting excessive and problematic pornography use and other compulsive sexual behaviors. Until recently, none of these classifications had been adopted by any major medical organization or included in a diagnostic manual. However, in 2019, the World Health Organization included the novel diagnosis of CSBD in the 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases. CSBD is described as “a persistent pattern of failure to control intense, repetitive sexual impulses or urges, resulting in repetitive sexual behaviour over an extended period (e.g., six months or more) that causes marked distress or impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of functioning” (Kraus et al., 2018, p. 109). With the advent of this new disorder, problematic pornography use may now be grouped with other sexual behaviors meeting diagnostic criteria for CSBD.

Systematic data are lacking regarding the prevalence of CSBD in the population at large. However, there is reason to suspect that it will be commonly encountered in clinical settings. As an example, a recent study of 2,325 U.S. adults found that 8.6% of the representative sample (7.0% of women and 10.3% of men) endorsed clinically relevant levels of distress or impairment associated with concerns controlling sexual feelings, urges, and behaviors (Dickenson et al., 2018). Of note, these data did not specify what sorts of sexual behaviors were problematic for participants. However, data from a nationally representative U.S. sample of 2,075 Internet users showed that approximately half reported past-year use of Internet pornography, and 11% of men and 3% of women reported feeling at least somewhat addicted to pornography (Grubbs, Kraus, & Perry, 2019). Collectively, the above prevalence rates suggest that, at the very least, a substantial subset of the population in the United States is concerned about excessive or compulsive use of pornography. Yet there may be reasons to be cautious in assuming that such high base rates reflect genuine compulsion, dysregulation, or addiction.

In contrast to the above discussion of excessive pornography use and CSBD, some research suggests that high-frequency pornography use is not inherently problematic. There is little research directly linking pornography use to psychological distress, and even less research has examined whether pornography use might be related to positive mental health outcomes. Undoubtedly, some people use pornography more frequently than others, and some individuals report using pornography excessively. Even so, a number of studies have shown that high-frequency use of pornography is not always or even often problematic (Bőthe et al., 2020; Vaillancourt-Morel et al., 2017). People who report problems or impairment associated with pornography use may do so quite independently of the actual frequency or duration of their use (Grubbs, Lee, et al., 2020; Vaillancourt-Morel et al., 2017). Thus, there is evidence that quantity or frequency may not be the only determining factor in whether a person reports feeling dysregulated or out of control in their use of pornography.

Pornography, religion, and morality

As we noted above, pornography use—even at high levels—is most often not problematic. Conversely, for some people, pornography use—even at quite low levels—is robustly associated with self-reports of dysregulation, distress, and addiction (Grubbs, Lee, et al., 2020). A sizable body of literature now suggests that another potential avenue by which pornography use may become problematic is actually more related to interpretations of that use rather than the use itself. Specifically, religious qualms about pornography and moral disapproval of pornography seem to shape self-interpretations of pornography users (Grubbs, Perry, et al., 2019).

In the Western world, conservative religious values are consistently related to moral disapproval of pornography (Grubbs, Perry, et al., 2019). Moreover, in at least some research in non-Western countries, conservative religiousness, particularly Christianity, is associated with greater moral disapproval of pornography use (Fernandez et al., 2017). Not surprisingly, then, religious individuals report using pornography less than nonreligious people (Grubbs, Lee, et al., 2020). However, religious individuals do indeed report using pornography with some regularity, which implies a mismatch of professed beliefs about pornography and actual behaviors (Perry, 2018). This mismatch of beliefs and behaviors gives rise to a phenomenon termed moral incongruence, which refers to the dissonance that arises from pornography use among individuals who morally disapprove of pornography (Grubbs, Perry, et al., 2019).

Importantly, moral incongruence is one of the most robust and consistent predictors of self-reported addiction to pornography. These findings are clear in cross-sectional, nationally representative U.S. samples and longitudinally over a 1-year time period (Grubbs, Kraus, et al., 2020). In short, there is evidence that religiously based moral disapproval of pornography is uniquely predictive of self-reports of addiction to pornography, suggesting that moral incongruence might obfuscate some aspects of the diagnostic process for CSBD. This possibility is not lost on the authors of the CSBD diagnostic criteria, given that they specifically note that moral distress over sexual behavior alone is not sufficient for a diagnosis of CSBD. However, it remains unclear whether clinicians will carefully adhere to these criteria, particularly given that past research has shown that more religious therapists tend to diagnose sexual behavior as addictive behavior (Droubay & Butters, 2020). Further, at present, there is simply no empirical study of the treatment of pornography problems due to moral incongruence. Although limited case studies do exist (Kraus & Sweeney, 2019), no rigorous empirical research has been systematically conducted to study the treatment of pornography-related problems due to moral incongruence.

Finally, we note that these moral objections to pornography use do not appear to be restricted to individual use. The desire to censor or regulate pornography use is also robustly predicted by conservative religiousness (Droubay et al., 2018). More than one third of U.S. states have drafted or passed legislation condemning pornography use as a public health crisis despite the skepticism of public health scholars and the absence of robust evidence for their claims (Nelson & Rothman, 2020). In most of these cases, such legislation has not produced any meaningful policy changes or regulatory action. However, much of the language in these proposals originated in conservative religious-advocacy groups and explicitly positions opposition to pornography as flowing from moral concerns (Nelson & Rothman, 2020). In sum, moral and religious objections to pornography use seem to predict both a greater likelihood of self-reporting addiction to pornography and a greater likelihood of supporting regulatory action against pornography.

Future Considerations

Pornography use is a common and largely normal human behavior in developed nations with unrestricted Internet access. The use of pornography rivals the use of other popular media, yet research into pornography use has been largely ignored by mainstream psychology. This is an unfortunate reality, but it does not have to remain this way. Rather than being thought of as a niche or topical interest, pornography use is likely a behavior that intersects with a plethora of other research domains in psychology more broadly and is likely influencing outcomes already being studied by psychological scientists. Accordingly, the rigorous scientific study of pornography use is an area in need of continued empirical attention from various domains in psychology, which should focus on the spectrum of use behaviors ranging from likely positive effects to likely negative effects.

Moving forward, we recommend a more balanced approach that is characterized by mainstream psychologists recognizing and examining how pornography use is relevant to their domains of research interest. Such engagement might be as simple as researchers regularly accounting for pornography use in ongoing studies (e.g., asking about pornography-use habits in studies of adolescent sexual and relational development or measuring private and partnered pornography use when examining sexual functioning, satisfaction, or performance). However, we also see a need for more rigorous research that intentionally studies the use of pornography itself as an extraordinarily common and uniquely human behavior. That is, although we see a clear need for pornography use to be considered as an important covariate or control in studies of mainstream research topics, we also see a need for rigorous studies of pornography use itself at the highest levels of psychological science.

In the domain of clinical science, we see a clear need for both intervention-related research and addiction science to take seriously the possibility for pornography use as a clinical concern. This point in particular highlights a need for rigorous epidemiological and treatment-focused research related to pornography use, self-reported pornography addiction, and other pornography-related problems (e.g., guilt or shame). As noted above, a growing body of research clearly suggests that pornography use is salient in a range of clinical contexts, yet there is a paucity of controlled clinical studies related to the treatment of problems related to pornography use.

We also see a clear need for funding agencies to support research related to pornography use, particularly as it pertains to individuals seeking treatment for problematic pornography use or other CSBD-related behaviors. As we have demonstrated throughout the present work, pornography use is relevant to domains of scientific inquiry that have historically been supported by a diverse array of funders (adolescent development, relationship science, addiction science). However, to date, funding for studies of pornography use and its concomitant effects has been lacking, resulting in missed opportunities for addressing sexual-health disparities in clinical populations. In the United States, the study of pornography use, similar to the study of many other uses and effects of technology, certainly does not fit within the Research Domain Criteria of the National Institute for Mental Health or within the current priorities of the National Science Foundation. However, this incompatibility speaks less to the validity of pornography use as an area of scientific inquiry and more to the limitations of current funding priorities. Given the widespread nature of pornography use and the clear potential for such use to impact well-being in a variety of domains, it is long past time for funding agencies to prioritize the rigorous scientific study of this behavior, particularly because clinical data suggest that compulsive pornography use often co-occurs with anxiety, depression, and substance use and gambling disorders (Kraus et al., 2015). Further well-funded research is needed to examine the co-occurrence of problematic pornography use and psychiatric mental disorders as it pertains to clinical populations.

Finally, we also encourage scholars already studying pornography to adopt more rigorous methodology such as ecological momentary assessments, longitudinal dyadic studies, and experimental methods. There is also a clear need for psychological researchers to study pornography use among diverse groups, particularly because scholarship is sorely lacking among older women, sexual-minority women, racial and ethnic minorities, and persons with disabilities. Further, we recommend that researchers should consider conceptualizing pornography use on a continuum ranging from healthy to compulsive, as we have alluded to throughout this work and illustrated in Figure 1. Such an approach would avoid the dichotomy of viewing pornography as good or bad and allow for greater expression of individual differences that naturally occur in groups. Lastly, future research is needed to employ robust research designs (e.g., nationally representative sampling, longitudinal cohort designs) when examining the relationships between pornography use and psychological well-being.

Participants viewed psychiatric disorders as more likely to be innate and immutable when the diagnosis was supported by a brain test as compared to a behavioral test

Essentialist Biases Toward Psychiatric Disorders: Brain Disorders Are Presumed Innate. Iris Berent  Melanie Platt. Cognitive Science, April 19 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12970

Abstract: A large campaign has sought to destigmatize psychiatric disorders by disseminating the view that they are in fact brain disorders. But when psychiatric disorders are associated with neurobiological correlates, laypeople's attitudes toward patients are harsher, and the prognoses seem poorer. Here, we ask whether these misconceptions could result from the essentialist presumption that brain disorders are innate. To this end, we invited laypeople to reason about psychiatric disorders that are diagnosed by either a brain or a behavioral test that were strictly matched for their informative value. Participants viewed disorders as more likely to be innate and immutable when the diagnosis was supported by a brain test as compared to a behavioral test. These results show for the first time that people spontaneously essentialize psychiatric conditions that are linked to the brain, even when the brain probe offers no additional diagnostic or genetic information. This bias suggests that people consider the biological essence of living things as materially embodied.

From 2020... Some advertisements work well across many cultures, others do not

From 2020... The evolution-similarity matrix: an evolutionary psychology perspective on cross-cultural advertising. Lachezar Ivanov ORCID , Jordan Buck , Rory Sutherland. Innovative Marketing Volume 16 2020, Issue #2, pp. 159-167, July 3, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.21511/im.16(2).2020.12

Abstract: The standardization/adaptation debate in cross-cultural advertising is a topic on which little consensus prevails and which remains heavily discussed. Using evolutionary psychology, this paper presents a typology of advertising cues and explains their cross-cultural relevance and transportability. The paper highlights three distinct categories – human universals (evolved similarities), local adaptations (evolved differences), and local socialization (differences not due to evolution). The paper contributes to advertising theory by providing a meta-framework for the study of cross-cultural similarities and differences in the processing of advertising cues. It further assists advertising practice by delivering a framework aiding in cross-cultural advertising copy decisions. By raising the questions that the paper poses to develop the proposed typology categories, advertisers can identify which advertising cues are malleable by advertising and which are based on innate human preferences and are relatively stable. With that knowledge in hand, advertisers can decide when and to what extent to use a standardization approach versus an adaptation approach.

Keywords: ad appeals, adaptation, cross-cultural, evolutionary psychology, evolved differences, evolved similarities, international, standardization

Your Personality does not Care Whether you Believe it Can Change: Beliefs about Whether Personality can Change do not Predict Change among Emerging Adults

Your Personality does not Care Whether you Believe it Can Change: Beliefs about Whether Personality can Change do not Predict Trait Change among Emerging Adults. Nathan W. Hudson et al. European Journal of Personality, December 2, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2289

Abstract: Theorists have suggested that beliefs about whether personality can change might operate in a self–fulfilling fashion, leading to growth in personality traits across time. In the present two studies, we collected intensive longitudinal data from a total of 1339 emerging adults (ns = 254 and 1085) and examined the extent to which both global beliefs that personality can change (e.g. ‘You can change even your most basic qualities’) and granular beliefs that the individual Big Five personality domains can change (e.g. ‘You can change how extraverted and enthusiastic you generally are’) predicted trait change across approximately 4 months. Results indicated that traits did change across time, yet beliefs that personality can change were almost completely unrelated to actual change in personality traits. Our findings suggest that personality development during emerging adulthood does not depend to any meaningful degree on whether or not individuals believe that their traits can change. © 2020 European Association of Personality Psychology

Keywords: adult personality development, implicit theories of personality, personality mindsets, fixed vs. growth, mindsets, entity vs. incremental orientation

Societies characterized by higher importance of religion or higher degree of church attendance reported higher likelihood of staying at home behavior

Cooperation and Trust Across Societies During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Angelo Romano et al. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, April 13, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022120988913

Abstract: Cross-societal differences in cooperation and trust among strangers in the provision of public goods may be key to understanding how societies are managing the COVID-19 pandemic. We report a survey conducted across 41 societies between March and May 2020 (N = 34,526), and test pre-registered hypotheses about how cross-societal differences in cooperation and trust relate to prosocial COVID-19 responses (e.g., social distancing), stringency of policies, and support for behavioral regulations (e.g., mandatory quarantine). We further tested whether cross-societal variation in institutions and ecologies theorized to impact cooperation were associated with prosocial COVID-19 responses, including institutional quality, religiosity, and historical prevalence of pathogens. We found substantial variation across societies in prosocial COVID-19 responses, stringency of policies, and support for behavioral regulations. However, we found no consistent evidence to support the idea that cross-societal variation in cooperation and trust among strangers is associated with these outcomes related to the COVID-19 pandemic. These results were replicated with another independent cross-cultural COVID-19 dataset (N = 112,136), and in both snowball and representative samples. We discuss implications of our results, including challenging the assumption that managing the COVID-19 pandemic across societies is best modeled as a public goods dilemma.

Keywords: cooperation, trust, COVID-19, institutions, social dilemmas, culture

Discussion

Recent review papers have suggested that many behaviors required to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., maintaining social distance, washing hands, self-imposed quarantine) can be construed as social dilemmas, involving a conflict between short-term immediate self-interests and long-term collective benefits (Johnson et al., 2020; Van Bavel et al., 2020). If the COVID-19 pandemic indeed creates a social dilemma, then research on cross-societal differences on cooperation and trust should help predict responses to COVID-19 and potentially offer insights into policies that could regulate behaviors in response to COVID-19 (Johnson et al., 2020).

To address this question, we utilized a survey across 41 societies linking country-level predictors (cooperation, trust, institutional quality, religion, historical prevalence of pathogens) with individual-level prosocial COVID-19 responses, behaviors, and support for behavioral regulations to address COVID-19. Results revealed substantial cross-societal variation in individuals’ self-reported willingness to engage in prosocial COVID-19 behaviors (e.g., social distancing, donating to charities), self-reported actual prosocial COVID-19 behaviors (e.g., hand washing, staying at home), and support for behavioral regulation policies (e.g., mandatory quarantine, vaccination). We applied theory and research on cooperation and trust across societies to predict these outcomes related to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, we did not find any consistent support for our pre-registered hypotheses that these cross-societal differences in prosocial COVID-19 responses and support for policies would be associated with country-level differences in cooperation or trust among strangers. These results were replicated using an additional dataset which included a larger sample of countries, and also when restricting the analyses in the present study to only include countries with age-gender representative samples of around 1,000 participants.

We also examined how several societal-level factors may play a role in responding to the pandemic. Several theories explain why societies differ in cooperation among strangers, emphasizing the quality of institutions (Hruschka & Henrich, 2013), religiosity (Norenzayan et al., 2014), and historical prevalence of pathogens (Fincher & Thornhill, 2012). The current results, however, revealed no consistent association between these cross-societal factors and prosocial COVID-19 responses. We also did not find consistent support for our hypotheses that societies characterized by lower levels of cooperation (and trust) would implement stricter government policies. Societies with lower cooperation and trust also did not display larger increases in prosocial COVID-19 responses in relation to more stringent rules. Taken together, the results of this study question the value of using cross-cultural research on social dilemmas to guide policy making in response to the pandemic.

Although the COVID-19 pandemic may still create a large-scale public goods dilemma among strangers, cross-societal differences in cooperation and trust among strangers may not be relevant to individual decision-making in response to an emerging pandemic. Instead, COVID-19 responses may be understood in light of (1) individual differences in tendencies to trust and cooperate with strangers (Aschwanden et al., 2020), (2) proself motivations instead of prosocial, that is, people may engage in costly self-sacrifices (e.g., social distancing) to benefit themselves, their families, co-habitants, co-workers, and/or neighbors (not anonymous strangers), (3) a psychology functionally specialized for disease avoidance (Schaller, 2011; Tybur et al., 2013) instead of cooperation, and/or (4) differences in information about the pandemic across societies, which might play a major role in shifting how people perceive this situation (independent of whether the situation is truly a social dilemma). Accordingly, people may not even recognize their mutual dependence with broader societal members, and could frame the situation entirely different than a public goods dilemma, such as total independence from others (i.e., own and others’ social distancing decisions don’t affect others’ outcomes) or as a situation with asymmetrical dependence (i.e., only the elderly benefit from one’s costly cooperation; Balliet et al., 2017; Gerpott et al., 2018).

Another possibility is that COVID-19 does not create a public goods dilemma, but instead creates a different interdependent situation, which would produce a different set of expectations for behavior. For example, social distancing during the dilemma may best be understood as a chicken game (Smith & Price, 1973), where the most favorable outcome for each person is doing the opposite of what others choose to do. In this frame, costly self-sacrifices may result in the best outcome for an individual when others are not engaging in costly self-sacrifices (e.g., social distancing), but when other people are engaging in these costly behaviors, then people would achieve the best outcome by not making the sacrifices. However, in this kind of situation, everyone would receive a better outcome if each person engages in social distancing, relative to when each person does not. If the COVID-19 pandemic represents a chicken game, this would question the relevance of cooperation and trust in public goods dilemmas to understand responses to the pandemic. Indeed, we tested a number of pre-registered hypotheses based on the assumption that cooperation in a public goods dilemma among strangers would be key to understand variation across societies in responses to the pandemic, but we failed to find consistent support for these hypotheses across different datasets. Therefore, researchers wanting to extend implications of cross-societal cooperation research to policy in response to the pandemic would be advised to follow along these lines of inquiry, and collect data to test their assumptions and theory prior to making policy recommendations.

One limitation of the present research is worth noting. We used country-level indicators of cooperation and trust. Although we found considerable between-country variation in responses to the pandemic, this variation was not explained by cross-societal differences in cooperation and trust. While cross-societal differences in cooperation and trust have been widely used in past research to predict individual behaviors across societies (e.g., Gächter & Schulz, 2016; Romano et al., 2017; Schulz et al., 2019), future research can measure individual differences in cooperation and trust, and then examine whether these measures are able to detect cross-societal variation in individual behaviors in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite this limitation, the present study embodies several strengths, including (1) being guided by theory and pre-registered hypotheses about cooperation across societies, (2) utilizing a sample comprised of a large and varied set of societies, (3) revealing results which were robust across different operationalizations of the predictor variables (i.e., cooperation and trust) and outcome variables (i.e., motivations, behaviors), and (4) cross-validating the results with alternative datasets which comprised even larger number of societies and representative samples, addressing the possible concern that our results may be due to the sampling strategy and methods (see SI).

To conclude, we applied theory of human cooperation across societies to generate pre-registered hypotheses about prosocial COVID-19 responses across 41 societies and found no consistent support for these hypotheses. Previous papers have claimed that a social dilemma framework can guide policy making in response to the pandemic, without offering any empirical evidence about whether the pandemic actually poses a social dilemma, and whether theory and research from this domain apply to predict variation in behaviors in response to the pandemic. To guide evidence-based policies to address the pandemic, it is necessary to offer robust evidence that previous theory and research apply to this context. Cooperation may still be relevant to understanding responses to the pandemic, but the current findings strongly suggest the need to revisit fundamental assumptions about the nature of COVID-19 responses and do the relevant empirical research prior to making policy recommendations.

One appears more attractive in a selfie with other people than in isolation, as long as the other people are equally or less attractive

Change in Evaluation Mode Can Cause a Cheerleader Effect. Claude Messner, Mattia Carnelli and Patrick Stefan Hähener. Front. Psychol., April 21 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.607448

The cheerleader effect describes the phenomenon whereby faces are perceived as being more attractive when flanked by other faces than when they are perceived in isolation. At least four theories predict the cheerleader effect. Two visual memory processes could cause a cheerleader effect. First, visual information will sometimes be averaged in the visual memory: the averaging of faces could increase the perceived attractiveness of all the faces flanked by other faces. Second, information will often be combined into a higher-order concept. This hierarchical encoding suggests that information processing causes faces to appear more attractive when flanked by highly attractive faces. Two further explanations posit that comparison processes cause the cheerleader effect. While contrast effects predict that a difference between the target face and the flanking faces causes the cheerleader effect due to comparison processes, a change in the evaluation mode, which alters the standard of comparison between joint and separate evaluation of faces, could be sufficient for producing a cheerleader effect. This leads to the prediction that even when there is no contrast between the attractiveness of the target face and the flanking faces, a cheerleader effect could occur. The results of one experiment support this prediction. The findings of this study have practical implications, such as for individuals who post selfies on social media. An individual’s face will appear more attractive in a selfie taken with people of low attractiveness than in a selfie without other people, even when all the faces have equally low levels of attractiveness.

Discussion

The goal of this study was to demonstrate that a change in evaluation mode could cause a cheerleader effect. The results show that faces are perceived as more attractive when they are flanked by faces of low rather than high attractiveness, even when the target faces do not differ in attractiveness from the flanking faces. This is in line with the predictions of the change in evaluation mode and that the presence of flanking faces changes the evaluation mode (Hsee and Leclerc, 1998; Hsee and Zhang, 2010).

Contrast Effect and Evaluation Mode

The contrast hypothesis and the evaluation mode do not contradict each other. Both theories argue that judgments are constructed by contrasts. When flanking faces are available, target face attractiveness is evaluated in contrast to flanking faces. The contrast between the target face and the flanking face could cause a cheerleader effect (Ying et al., 2019). However, if no flanking faces are available, observers base their judgment on the contrast with their internal standards (Hsee and Zhang, 2010). This change from an external to an internal standard of comparison could cause a cheerleader effect as well. In our experiment, we minimized the contrast between the target faces and the flanking faces. In the condition with unattractive targets flanked by equally unattractive flankers, we observed a cheerleader effect.

In our experiment, we had no direct measure of the change in evaluation mode. Our argumentation is based on the idea that a contrast between target and flanking face attractiveness is a necessary condition for a contrast effect. Therefore, we selected targets and flankers which are very similar in their degree of attractiveness. However, minimal contrasts between target and flanking face attractiveness still exist. Therefore, we cannot rule out the possibility that minimal contrasts cause the cheerleader effect in those conditions as well. However, there are additional results which support our hypotheses. First, when considering faces with low attractiveness with equally low attractive flanking faces the cheerleader effect is greater than when considering highly attractive faces with unattractive flanking faces, although the contrasts are smaller. Second, we calculated the difference between the attractiveness of each target face with equally attractive flankers (minimal contrasts) and with more or less attractive flankers respectively (high contrast). In both conditions with high contrast there was a correlation between the contrast and the cheerleader effect. However, in both conditions with minimal contrast there was no correlation between the contrast and the cheerleader effect.

The aim of this paper is to introduce the idea that a change of evaluation mode is a process which could cause a cheerleader effect. Falsifying other processes is not an aim of this paper. Actually, even small changes could cause other processes to influence the evaluation of facial attractiveness.

Real-Time Rating vs. Memory

This study focused on real-time impressions and not on memory-based judgments. Therefore, the participants rated the attractiveness of faces online while these faces were in view. However, real-time ratings differ from memory-based judgments (Hastie and Park, 1986; Ying et al., 2020). It is possible that visual memory processes have a higher influence on attractiveness ratings when judgments are memory-based but not when they occur in real time. In a recent study, participants evaluated faces after they had disappeared from the screen (Ying et al., 2019). Although the interval was short, the participants gave memory-based judgments. Ying et al.’s results could be interpreted as a mix between cognitive and visual memory processes because they show that facial attractiveness was more favorable when faces were flanked by faces of both low and high attractiveness.

Simultaneous and Sequential Presentation of Faces

Similar to memory-based judgments are situations where people evaluate a face online and compare it with a formerly viewed face. Such situations attest to two opposing influences: on the one hand a face is rated as more attractive when it follows a face of low attractiveness (Pegors et al., 2015; Ying et al., 2019), while on the other hand a face is rated as more attractive when a face of high attractiveness precedes it (Pegors et al., 2015). Therefore, judgments of the perceived attractiveness of flanked faces may differ when they are recalled compared to when they are made in real time. In addition, there is evidence that the cognitive processes differ if the observer evaluates a group of faces simultaneously or sequentially (Ying et al., 2020).

First Impressions vs. Familiar Faces

One important limitation of our study concerns the familiarity of the faces. Similar to other studies of the cheerleader effect, we measured the attractiveness of faces that were unfamiliar to the participants. Therefore, our results are based exclusively on the first impression of these faces. The precise mechanisms by which the attractiveness of a familiar face is influenced by flanked faces remains to be determined. However, attractiveness judgments are not only influenced by physical aspects but also by psychological aspects, such as associations (Rhodes and Zebrowitz, 2002) or sentimental feelings (Yang and Galak, 2015). It is possible that the more an attractiveness rating is influenced by psychological aspects, the less it is influenced by flanking faces.

Highly Attractive Flankers

It seems that a reversal of the cheerleader effect is less likely to occur than the cheerleader effect. In the present study, we found a reversal of the cheerleader effect when target faces were flanked by highly attractive faces only for target faces of low attractiveness, but not when highly attractive target faces were flanked by equally highly attractive faces. Similarly, Ying et al. (2019) reported cheerleader effects and no reversal of the cheerleader effect even when the flankers were attractive. One possible explanation is that in addition to cognitive processes, additional processes, such as averaging in the visual memory, generally increase facial attractiveness in groups.

Extremely Attractive Faces

A further limitation pertains to extremely attractive faces. We did not use extremely attractive faces. The potential to increase the attraction of extremely attractive faces is limited. Therefore, due to the ceiling effect, one would expect no or minimal cheerleader effects for extremely attractive people. In addition, if a person is unambiguously attractive, like Scarlett Johansson or Chris Hemsworth, observers do not need additional information to build their impressions. They have sufficient information for their evaluation, will not contrast them to flanking faces, and will not sample additional information (Simon, 1955; Fiedler and Bless, 2010; Stüttgen et al., 2012). However, for people with more ambiguous levels of attractiveness, such as John C. Reilly or Rebel Wilson, observers will consider the attractiveness of flanking faces (Messner, manuscript in preparation).

Assimilation vs. Contrast

Judgments are not always formed in contrast to something; they can be formed in assimilation toward something as well (Sherif et al., 1958; Mussweiler, 2003; Bless and Schwarz, 2010). Assimilation corresponds to the idea of hierarchical encoding. An explanation of the cheerleader effect based on hierarchical encoding is based on two assumptions: First, observers calculate the mean attractiveness of faces they see simultaneously; second, observers differentiate between the target face and other faces and bias their evaluation of the attractiveness of the target face toward the main attractiveness of the group of other faces. While evidence for the first assumption exists (Luo and Zhou, 2018), no such evidence exists for the second assumption (Luo and Zhou, 2018; Carragher et al., 2019; Ying et al., 2019). However, it is possible that additional redundancy would facilitate differentiation between the target face and the flanking faces and foster hierarchical encoding.

Conclusion

The change in evaluation mode has a high impact on marketing practice. A seller of low-budget products (e.g., a cheap-looking watch) presents the products alongside other low-budget products (other cheap-looking watches), while the seller of luxury goods presents the products separately (Hsee and Leclerc, 1998). This article provides evidence that similar processes are relevant for self-marketing, assuming the goal is that observers evaluate one’s attractiveness highly when one posts selfies on social media. One appears more attractive in a selfie with other people than in isolation, as long as the other people are equally or less attractive. The higher one’s own attractiveness, the less one benefits from this effect; however, it is not beneficial to post a selfie taken with other people in the frame if the attractiveness of these other people is high. Finally, the more unambiguous one’s attractiveness, the less one is affected by flanking faces.

College Students in the Western World are Becoming Less Emotionally Intelligent

College Students in the Western World are Becoming Less Emotionally Intelligent: A Cross‐Temporal Meta‐Analysis of Trait Emotional Intelligence. Mahreen Khan  Amirali Minbashian  Carolyn MacCann. Journal of Personality, April 19 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12643

Abstract

Objective: Over the last two decades, Western society has undergone a marked cultural transformation characterised by rising individualism. Concurrently, the digital landscape has transformed through the rise of social media and smartphones. These factors have previously been implicated in changing individuals’ attitudes, behaviour and interpersonal interactions. We investigated whether these societal changes have coincided with changes in trait emotional intelligence (EI) over the last 17 years in Western university students.

Method: We examined this question using a cross‐temporal meta‐analysis (k = 70; N = 16,917).

Results: There was no change in overall trait EI; however, the trait EI domains “wellbeing,” “self‐control” and “emotionality” demonstrated significant decreases with time, after controlling for gender composition and between‐country differences.

Conclusion: We discuss these findings in relation to how they contribute to our understanding of trait EI, and how they add to the literature on how Western society is changing with time.

Short-term mate attraction tactics: Men's behaviours that were considered most effective by women are related to investment and long-term interest (dinner, movies, spending time with her)

Want to Hookup?: Sex Differences in Short-term Mate Attraction Tactics. T. Joel Wade, Maryanne L. Fisher, Catherine Salmon & Carly Downs. Evolutionary Psychological Science, Apr 20 2021. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-021-00282-0

Abstract: While a great deal of psychological research has been conducted on sex-specific mate choice preferences, relatively little attention has been directed toward how heterosexual men and women solicit short-term sexual partners, and which acts are perceived to be the most effective. The present research relied on an act nomination methodology with the goal of determining which actions are used by men and women to solicit a short-term “hook-up” partner (study 1) and then determine which of these actions are perceived as most effective by men and women (study 2). Using sexual strategy theory, we hypothesized that actions that suggest sexual access would be nominated most often by women whereas actions that suggest a willingness to commit were expected to be nominated most often by men. Additionally, men and women were predicted to rate actions by men that suggest a willingness to commit as most effective and actions by women that suggest sexual access as most effective. The results were consistent with these hypotheses. These findings are discussed in the context of both short- and long-term mating strategies and mate solicitation. The relationship between motivation, sexual strategies, and sexual behavior are examined, along with the need for research on the hookup tactics and motivations of self-identifying gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals.

Men owning shirts with larger luxury brand logos were rated higher on mating effort, lower on parental investment, higher on interest in brief sexual affairs, lower on interest in long-term committed relationships

Phenotypic Mimicry Distinguishes Cues of Mating Competition From Paternal Investment in Men’s Conspicuous Consumption. Daniel J. Kruger. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, April 15, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211007229

Popular version: Charles Darwin and conspicuous consumption: Why bling is blingy (phys.org)

Abstract: Evolutionary psychologists propose that men’s conspicuous consumption facilitates mate attraction because it predicts resource investment in offspring. This article elaborates on the ultimate functions of men’s luxury displays based on Life History Theory. Three studies provide evidence for phenotypic mimicry, in which consumer product features mimicking male secondary sex characteristics indicate investment in mating competition, at the expense of paternal investment. Men owning shirts with larger luxury brand logos were rated higher on mating effort, lower on parental investment, higher on interest in brief sexual affairs, lower on interest in long-term committed romantic relationships, higher in attractiveness to women for brief sexual affairs, lower in attractiveness to women for long-term committed relationships, and higher in developmental environment unpredictability compared with men owning shirts displaying a smaller logo. Participants recognized the strategic use of luxury display properties across social contexts but did not consistently associate product properties with owners’ physiological characteristics.

Keywords: conspicuous consumption, secondary sex characteristics, mating effort, parental investment

People found the speech of the opposite political camp more offensive than their own, although they denied any influence of camp affiliation on offensiveness

Whose Words Hurt? Contextual Determinants of Offensive Speech. Manuel Almagro Holgado et al. Research Gate, April 2021. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350819628

Abstract: Tracing the boundaries of freedom of expression is a matter of wide societal and academic import—especially, as these boundaries encroach on the politics of inclusion. Yet the elements that constitute offensive speech and determine its legal status remain poorly defined. In two studies, we examined how lay judges evaluate the offensiveness of various social generics. Replicating prior work, we found that non-linguistic features (including speaker intent and outcomes on the audience) modulated the statements’ perceived meaning. The speaker’s identity—and, in particular, their membership in the target group—independently influenced evaluations of offensive speech among conservatives and progressives alike. When asked to disclose their abstract principles, or jointly evaluate two contrastive cases, participants tended to deny the relevance of identity while primarily endorsing the intent principle. Taken together, our findings confirm that assessments of offensive speech are governed by contextual features, some of which are not introspectively deemed relevant.