One of the weird things about Britain, despite its being the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, is that its financial infrastructure was for a long time remarkably backward; the Dutch did it better

How the Dutch Did it Better. Anton Howes. Age of Invention Blog, Feb 17 2023. https://antonhowes.substack.com/p/age-of-invention-how-the-dutch-did

Excerpts:

One of the weird things about Britain, despite its being the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, is that its financial infrastructure was for a long time remarkably backward. Its “Financial Revolution”, by which both people and the state began to borrow at ever lower interest rates, only really took off in the early eighteenth century — long after London’s extraordinary growth in 1550-1650, when it had suddenly expanded eightfold to become one of Europe’s most important commercial hubs. Indeed, even for much of the late seventeenth century, England lacked many of the most basic financial institutions that had been used for decades and decades by their most important rival and trading partner, the Dutch Republic.

I was especially intrigued when I stumbled across a discussion of Dutch policies and customs, written up in around 1665 by the young merchant Josiah Child, and published a few years later: a kind of wishlist of many of the things that made the Dutch so wealthy, and which the English continually failed to emulate:1

- The Dutch councils of state and war always included merchants who had experience of trading and living abroad — Child was perhaps just angling for some influence here, but for all that merchants were getting more influential, in England they were not actually in charge.

- Gavel-kind succession laws, whereby all children got an equal share of their parents’ estates, rather than it all going to the eldest. English primogeniture, by contrast, apparently left a lot of gentlemen’s younger sons having to become apprenticed to merchants.

- High regulatory standards for goods. A barrel of Dutch-packed herring or cod would apparently be accepted by buyers just by viewing the marks, without having to open them up to check. English-packed goods, by contrast, were rarely trusted because the fish would turn out to be rotten or even missing — the English regulators’ stamps of approval were reputedly given to anyone who would pay.

- Encouragement for inventors of new products, techniques, and import trades, who received rewards from the state, and not just temporary monopoly patents.

- Ships, called fluyt, which were cheaper to build, required fewer sailors, and were easier to handle. Despite being only very lightly armed, they sailed in fleets for protection, when necessary being convoyed by ships of war. English trading ships, by contrast, were each heavily armed, but with those cannon taking up room and weight that could have been used for carrying merchandise.

- Education of all children, even girls, in arithmetic and keeping accounts. As Child put it, this infused in the Dutch “a strong aptitude, love, and delight” for commerce. It also meant that husbands and wives were real partners in many businesses — something that impressed almost all foreign visitors to the Netherlands.

- Low customs duties, but high consumption taxes. Very low customs duties, on both imports and exports, meant that it was often very profitable to trade with the Netherlands. The Dutch were famed for their many ships, and for their granaries bursting with grain, despite growing hardly any trees or crops themselves. To fund their state, they instead overwhelmingly relied on the gemene middelen — taxes on the sale of wine, beer, meat, fuel, candles, salt, soap, flour, cloth, and a host of other goods, with many of the higher rates reserved for expensive luxuries. Much like modern value-added taxes, these taxes on consumption raised revenue while preserving the all-important incentive to save and invest.

- Thrifty living — which, come to think of it, was probably related to the high consumption taxes, although Childs doesn’t seem to have noticed the connection. Dutch thrift was thought by the English to be especially useful because it allowed wage costs to be kept low — essential for maintaining competitiveness in international markets — while preventing the country having a trade deficit. The English always worried they were sending too much of their silver abroad to pay for French wines and other luxuries, but the Dutch appeared to have prevented this without resorting to import tariffs that might annoy trading partners and prompt retaliation.

- Religious toleration, which attracted all sorts of industrious immigrants to bring their families and wealth. (Incidentally, as I’ve mentioned before, this was also one of the key attractions of Livorno, set up by the Medici Dukes of Tuscany to be a major trading hub.)

- The use of the Law-Merchant, which meant that all controversies between merchants and tradesmen were decided in just 3 or 4 days’ time. England, rather strangely for such an increasingly commercial nation, did not develop merchant courts with a specific jurisdiction or a distinct body of merchant law — disputes instead had to be resolved in the royal common-law or equity courts, in the Admiralty court, or else abroad. The English courts, however, were often slow. Child complained that cases often took half a year, and often much longer. (Incidentally, slow and rotten justice in the Court of Chancery, the key equity court used by merchants in England, was one of the reasons Francis Bacon was impeached by Parliament and sacked as Lord Chancellor.)

- Transferrable bills of exchange — in other words, the circulation of credit notes as a currency. These were not properly supported by English laws, but allowed Dutch merchants to trade a lot more frequently. English merchants often had to wait some six months to a year before receiving all the coin from selling their foreign goods in London, so as to purchase goods again to make fresh trades. They spent much of their time chasing shopkeepers for payment. But the Dutch, by being able to easily buy and sell their credit notes, could “turn their stocks twice or thrice in trade”, immediately settling their accounts and making fresh purchases. (I intend to look into this in a lot more detail soon, as finding a way to bills of exchange transferrable in England appears to have been a major project for many of the mid-seventeenth-century inventors and improvers — after just a cursory glance, transferability was only secured in law as late as 1704.)

- Banks. Or rather, as Child actually put it, “BANKS”. In England many of the functions of banks gradually evolved from the practices of individual goldsmiths and the scriveners — legal clerks who specialised in property transfers and mortgages. There was certainly nothing so secure as the municipal Wisselbank of Amsterdam, established in 1609, which had various monopoly powers as a clearing-house for bills of exchange and was backed by a vault full of bullion. Nor the municipal Bank van Lening, established in 1614, which was a pawnbroker modelled on the Italian Monte di Pietà, or mounts of piety, designed to make small and low-cost loans to the poor.

- “PUBLIC REGISTERS” — again capitalised by Child — of all lands and houses sold or mortgaged. This item on the policy wishlist would not be ticked off for England until two centuries later, but the key advantage was to prevent lawsuits over land titles — still cited as a major problem even in the 1690s — and so make land more genuinely secure for mortgages.

Much more at the link above.

Comparing oneself on social media with those who are better off than oneself is a turn-off in every way, for men, women and people of all ages

A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Social Media Exposure to Upward Comparison Targets on Self-Evaluations and Emotions. Carly A. McComb,Eric J. Vanman &Stephanie J. Tobin. Media Psychology, Feb 23 2023. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2023.2180647

Abstract: Social media have become a pervasive part of contemporary culture and are an essential part of the daily lives of an increasing number of people. Its popularity has brought unlimited opportunities to compare oneself with other people. This meta-analysis combined and summarized the findings of previous experimental research, with the aim of generating causal conclusions regarding the effects of exposure to upward comparison targets on self-evaluations and emotions in a social media context. We identified 48 articles involving 7679 participants through a systematic search and entered 118 effect sizes into a multilevel, random-effects meta-analysis. Analyses revealed an overall negative effect of upward social comparison relative to downward comparison and controls on social media users’ self-evaluations and emotions (g = −0.24, p < .001). Specifically, there were significant negative effects of upward comparison on each outcome variable: body image (g = −0.31, p < .001), subjective well-being (g = −0.19, p < .001), mental health (g = −0.21, p < .001) and self-esteem (g = −0.21, p < .001). This meta-analysis indicates that contrast is the dominant response to upward comparison on social media, which results in negative self-evaluations and emotions.

Individuals with ADHD are less tolerant of other people’s political views and more prone to support the idea of silencing other opinions

ADHD and political participation: An observational study. Israel Waismel-Manor et al. PLOS One, February 21, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280445

Abstract

Background and objective: Over the past decade, researchers have been seeking to understand the consequences of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) for different types of everyday behaviors. In this study, we investigated the associations between ADHD and political participation and attitudes, as ADHD may impede their active participation in the polity.

Methods: This observational study used data from an online panel studying the adult Jewish population in Israel, collected prior the national elections of April 2019 (N = 1369). ADHD symptoms were assessed using the 6-item Adult ADHD Self-Report (ASRS-6). Political participation (traditional and digital), news consumption habits, and attitudinal measures were assessed using structured questionnaires. Multivariate linear regression analyses were conducted to analyze the association between ADHD symptoms (ASRS score <17) and reported political participation and attitudes.

Results: 200 respondents (14.6%) screened positive for ADHD based on the ASRS-6. Our findings show that individuals with ADHD are more likely to participate in politics than individuals without ADHD symptoms (B = 0.303, SE = 0.10, p = .003). However, participants with ADHD are more likely to be passive consumers of news, waiting for current political news to reach them instead of actively searching for it (B = 0.172, SE = 0.60, p = .004). They are also more prone to support the idea of silencing other opinions (B = 0.226, SE = 0.10, p = .029). The findings hold when controlling for age, sex, level of education, income, political orientation, religiosity, and stimulant therapy for ADHD symptoms.

Conclusions: Overall, we find evidence that individuals with ADHD display a unique pattern of political activity, including greater participation and less tolerance of others’ views, but not necessarily showing greater active interest in politics. Our findings add to a growing body of literature that examines the impact of ADHD on different types of everyday behaviors.

Discussion

Previous work suggests that genetic and biological factors might help explain some political behaviors [52–55, 59]. This study examines whether and how one of the most prevalent neuropsychiatric disorders, ADHD [56–58], is correlated with measures of political participation and attitudes. We screened adult participants in a political participation study for ADHD symptomatology using the ASRS-6 screening questionnaire and compared political participation patterns and attitudes of participants who screened positive for ADHD to those of participants who screened negative. In our sample, where the prevalence of ADHD based on the ASRS-6 was 14.6%, we found that positive ADHD screening was associated with higher political participation through both physical and digital channels. However, while ADHD-positive participants tended to express their political opinions via social media, they did not report greater interest in politics or higher levels of active news consumption. Instead, the analysis demonstrated that individuals with ADHD symptoms are more likely to take a “political news will find me” approach. In this sense, our results align with previous work that finds that individuals who suffer from other health conditions in their daily lives tend to participate more regularly in political activity, such as contacting a politician or signing a petition [31].

Additionally, participants with ADHD symptoms were found to be less tolerant of other people’s views. Considering that participants with ADHD symptoms were not more likely to curb democratic norms as a whole, this might reflect their attentiveness rather than a broader democratic issue.

To the best of our knowledge, the impact of ADHD on political behavior has not previously been evaluated. However, a recent study has addressed the use of social media among patients with ADHD. Social media users with ADHD were found to be less agreeable, to post more often, and to use more negations, hedging, and swear words. ADHD is also correlated with addictive social media use [47]. Social media activity in general is rewarding for ADHD patients, as it provides immediate feedback and offers an easy distraction from other tasks. In this sense, political participation through social media platforms is equally rewarding for patients with ADHD.

Impatience and intolerance towards the opinion of others and/or willingness to interrupt others while speaking are also symptomatic of ADHD as defined by the DSM-V [5]. Our findings indicate that this trait is also applicable to the political arena, with participants who screened positive for ADHD displaying lower tolerance towards opposing opinions.

While there was no difference between the ADHD and non-ADHD groups in regard to the amount of political content they consume via popular news outlets, we found that participants with ADHD are more prone to consume news passively, waiting for it to “find them.” This implies, in turn, that these individuals tend to base their current political knowledge on information that is screened for them by others, or that is filtered and curated by social media algorithms. This finding, which was not previously reported, may have implications for how patients with ADHD perceive reality and their vulnerability to being captured by information bubbles.

Participants who were treated by stimulants did not differ from non-treated ADHD-positive participants in our study. A possible explanation for this finding is that pharmacological treatments for ADHD affect symptoms over a limited timeframe, even when long-acting agents are used. ADHD patients tend to take their medication in the morning, so as to manage their symptoms during working hours. However, they are more likely to post on social media at night [47]. As such, their political activity may take place largely at times of day when they are not medically treated.

Our study has four main limitations: First, it was performed on a small population in one specific political context (the state of Israel, which is considered highly polarized). It is, therefore, difficult to draw general conclusions regarding other countries. At the same time, attention disorders are common worldwide, and we hope that further research will this matter in other countries. Second, this study used a screening tool rather than a clinical diagnosis. Third, it is possible that individuals with ADHD will demonstrate a different pattern of responding to surveys. For example, they might lose interest in the middle of filing the survey, depending on the time of day. As no previous literature on this matter exists, our research was carried out using the conventional method without special adjustment for attention disorders. Forth, it examined political participation through self-reports.

Nonetheless, our findings provide insights into the possible effects of ADHD on political behavior. With growing recognition of the existence and impact of ADHD among adults, the effects of the disorder on all aspects of human life are beginning to unfold. Considering that political participation entails voluntary actions taken by individuals to influence public policy and those elected officials who shape those policies, and given that ADHD is correlated with weakened populations, it is important to understand both whether the voices of those with ADHD are heard, and how this segment of society affects the polity.

More broadly, as our understanding and acceptance of neurodiversity grows [59], we need to pay more attention to how various common neurodevelopmental disorders shape our society. The political arena in democratic societies is formed and shaped by all citizens, including “neuro-minorities,” and academic research should address their participation as part of an effort both to improve the social functioning of neurodivergent individuals and to enhance the political system for the benefit of all. Future research is needed to further validate and strengthen our findings, possibly using validated clinical diagnoses and evaluating digital political behaviors via actual inspection of participants’ social media accounts using automated approaches.

People want friends to be more prosocial toward oneself than toward others, and sometimes prefer friends who are more vicious than prosocial, for instance, toward one's enemies

Sometimes we want vicious friends: People have nuanced preferences for how they want their friends to behave toward them versus others. Jaimie Arona Krems et al. Evolution and Human Behavior, February 23 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2023.02.008

Abstract: Intuition and research alike suggest that people prefer friends to be prosocial—particularly kind and trustworthy. Here, we examine these preferences in light of the fact that dyadic friendships are embedded in wider social networks. Because our friends recurrently interact with other people, and these friend-other interactions can have various positive and negative effects on us, people should possess distinct preferences not only for how our friends behave toward us but also for how friends behave toward different other people (e.g., strangers, rivals). In six studies (N = 1183; two pre-registered) with complementary designs and cross-national samples (U.S. community, U.S. student, India community), we find: (a) When the targets of best friends' behavior are not specified, people's friend preferences track how one wants friends to behave toward oneself. Replicating patterns found in past work, (b) people generally want friends to be kinder and more trustworthy than not. But (c) people also want friends to be more prosocial toward oneself than toward others, and (d) people sometimes prefer friends who are more vicious than prosocial, for instance, toward one's enemies. These findings challenge some long-held conclusions about friend preferences, expand the known range of traits preferred in close relationship partners, and enrich our understanding of what it means to deem people, for example, “kind,” as such evaluative personality concepts may by default be indexed to the self.

Introduction

Most work on close relationships, especially friendships, tends to focus on the dyad and thus on how people want to be treated by their dyadic partners (i.e., their friends) (Hall, 2012; Huang, Ledgerwood, & Eastwick, 2020; Sprecher & Regan, 2002; Wiseman, 1986). What matters is that one's friend treats one well. In line with such thinking, robust evidence suggests that people prefer friends who are, for example, kind to them and disfavor those who are vicious to them (e.g., Cottrell, Neuberg, & Li, 2007; Fehr, 1996; Hall, 2011, Hall, 2012; Perlman, Stevens, & Carcedo, 2014; Sprecher & Regan, 2002). Somewhat similarly to such ‘canonical’ findings, ‘cooperative accounts’ of partner choice might predict that what matters is a friend's overall prosociality—to oneself or others—and so people should prefer friends who are maximally prosocial (to oneself and others) (for reviews—but not necessarily support for—such accounts, see Barakzai & Shaw, 2018; Hess & Hagen, 2006).1

Here, we integrate adaptationist theories of friendship, which emphasize friends' roles in providing one another preferential social support (DeScioli & Kurzban, 2009; Tooby & Cosmides, 1996), with our embedded dyad framework, and we test subsequent predictions about what people want in friends. Briefly, the embedded dyad framework emphasizes that dyads (e.g., friend pairs) exist embedded in wider and often densely interconnected social networks, wherein one's friends inevitably interact with other people (e.g., Basyouni & Parkinson, 2022; Dunbar, 2018, 2021). As implied by both this framework and adaptationist theories of friendship, friend-other interactions are not only a recurrent feature of the social landscape, but they can also have potentially profound effects on one's friends, one's friendships, and (thus) one's outcomes. Together, these lines of work suggest that friends should, on average, radiate positive effects on the self—both directly (via friend behavior toward the self) and also indirectly (via friend behavior toward others). If friends interacted only with oneself, then we would expect people to prefer friends who are maximally and solely prosocial. But because one's friends also interact with other people, including one's rivals, we suggest that people might sometimes prefer friends who behave with greater monstrousness than brotherly love—extending and sometimes challenging expectations from canonical work on friend preferences and cooperative accounts of partner choice.

Friends are associated with many benefits to health and happiness (see, e.g., Dunbar, 2018, 2021). Friends may have also helped one another solve several recurrent fitness challenges, from ensuring sufficient access to resources for survival to winning agonistic conflicts (e.g., DeScioli & Kurzban, 2009; Tooby & Cosmides, 1996; Williams, Krems, Ayers, & Rankin, 2022). But presumably, such benefits depend(ed) on securing good friends—those able and willing to help one meet one's needs. Friend preferences may thus play an important role in the formation of such friendships. Friend preferences are thought to guide people to invest their finite time and energy on attracting and maintaining friends who fit this bill (e.g., Conroy-Beam & Buss, 2016; Krems & Conroy-Beam, 2020; but see, Huang et al., 2020).

What do people want in friends? Theoretically, there are myriad preferences that people could prioritize in friends—intelligence, left-handedness, physical attractiveness, dislike of cats, formidability, detached earlobes (e.g., Benenson, 2014; Eisenbruch and Roney, 2020; Hall, 2011; Lewis et al., 2011; Lukaszewski, Simmons, Anderson, & Roney, 2016; Williams et al., 2022). But decades of research seem to paint a clear picture of people's friend preferences2: Although not an exhaustive list, people tend to most prefer friends who are kind and trustworthy (e.g., Andreoni & Bernheim, 2009; Barclay, 2016; Cottrell et al., 2007; Erikson, 1950, Erikson, 1964; Gurven & Winking, 2008; Hall, 2011; Hatfield, Traupmann, & Sprecher, 1984; Holmes & Rempel, 1989; Panchanathan & Boyd, 2004; Rempel, Holmes, & Zanna, 1985; Schwartz & Bardi, 2001; Shaw, DeScioli, & Olson, 2012; Yamagishi & Yamagishi, 1994). For example, people sometimes compete for friends by advertising their kindness (Barclay & Willer, 2007; Reis & Gruzen, 1976). People also value trustworthiness even over other desired traits, including intelligence and attractiveness (Cottrell et al., 2007).

Although less work examines traits disfavored in friends, people tend to eschew those who seem vicious or indifferent (e.g., Benenson, 2014; Hall, 2011, Hall, 2012; Shinada, Yamagishi, & Ohmura, 2004; Walster, Berscheid, & Walster, 1973).3 For example, people not only prefer kind friends, but they also disfavor the appreciably unkind, such that disagreeable individuals tend to be befriended less (Jensen-Campbell, Knack, Waldrip, & Campbell, 2007; Nettle, 2006; Selfhout et al., 2010). People also strongly prioritize friends' reciprocation of valuation and caring. A lack of reciprocated care from friends can end relationships (Delton & Robertson, 2016; Delton et al., 2023; Kenny & La Voie, 1982; La Gaipa & Wood, 1981; Rose, 1984; Shaw, DeScioli, Barakzai, & Kurzban, 2017; Walster et al., 1973). Though more tentative, people might also disfavor exploitative or impartial friends. People detect and avoid cheaters (e.g., Cosmides & Tooby, 1992), and, even as people consider impartiality a virtuous and desirable trait (Tyler, 2000), people consider friends' impartiality toward them undesirable (Shaw et al., 2017).

We additionally note that classic work in social psychology suggests that relationship partners tend to be similar, familiar, and nearby (Barry, 1970; Bornstein, 1989; Byrne, 1971; Newcomb & Svehla, 1937; Zajonc, 1968). This does not imply that these traits are necessarily prioritized in friendship formation, however (DeScioli & Kurzban, 2012).

Previous work in social psychology, relationship science, and related areas has often tended to focus on dyadic relationship processes (see, e.g., Basyouni & Parkinson, 2022; Dunbar, 2018; Fehr, 1996; Merrie, Krems, & Sznycer, n.d.). In line with this, friend preference research has tended to focus on the friend dyad, explicitly or implicitly. For example, participants might respond to items assessing how friends should behave toward oneself: “can make me laugh” (Oswald, Clark, & Kelly, 2004), “will cheer me up when I am sad” (Zarbatany, Conley, & Pepper, 2004), “really listens to what I have to say” (La Gaipa, 1987), “goes out of his/her way to help me” (Bank, 1994). Other friend preference measures—for example, asking about whether an ideal friend “is helpful” (e.g., Krems & Conroy-Beam, 2020; Williams et al., 2022)—could also be inferred as implicitly asking about ideal behavior toward oneself (e.g., “is helpful to me”; see Lukaszewski & Roney, 2010). In all, this work has generated a rich body of knowledge about friend preferences (see Hall, 2012), which we refer to as canonical preferences. Again, this work generally suggests that people prefer friends who are maximally prosocial (toward oneself) and eschew friends who are antisocial (toward oneself).

Another body of work on partner choice has focused on the importance of a partner's prosociality or cooperativeness. These cooperative accounts typically assert that people select partners (e.g., friends) based on the cooperative benefits they could provide (e.g., Baumard, André, & Sperber, 2013; Kenny, Mohr, & Levesque, 2001; Rand & Nowak, 2013), which can be gleaned from reputational information. On this view, people should prefer partners who have—and/or have reputations for—maximal prosociality—both toward oneself (direct reciprocity; e.g., preferring those kind to us) and others (indirect reciprocity; e.g., preferring those kind to others; for a review of cooperative accounts, see Hess & Hagen, 2006). Such accounts might additionally predict that people prefer friends who behave with minimal viciousness, indifference, or other dimensions of antisociality—again, toward oneself or others.

We derived additional predictions from an integration of our embedded dyad framework with adaptationist models of friendship. Briefly, this framework emphasizes that dyadic relationships (here, friendships) are embedded in wider networks, wherein one's friends inevitably interact with and have their own relationships with other people. These interactions can affect one's friends, one's friendships, and (thus) one's own outcomes in potentially profound ways—both positive and negative (e.g., Ackerman, Kenrick and Schaller, 2007; Barakzai and Shaw, 2018; Benenson, 2014; Jordan, Sommers, Bloom, & Rand, 2017; Klein & Milardo, 1993; Krems, Williams, Aktipis, & Kenrick, 2021; Krems, Williams, Merrie, Kenrick, & Aktipis, 2022; Owens, Shute, & Slee, 2000; Parker, Low, Walker, & Gamm, 2005; Shaw et al., 2017; Sugiyama, 2004).

This social complexity is also implied by adaptationist models of friendship, which emphasize friends as social insurance for times of illness, injury, or conflict. Consider a situation of drought and starvation; whereas strangers are unlikely to invest resources in a starving person, because that person looks like a bad bet for reciprocity, the starving person's friends might indeed share their finite resources with them even over others facing similar need (Tooby & Cosmides, 1996). By doing so, the sharing friend ensures the continued survival of a person who has a stake in their own welfare, and who would thus help them in their future times of trouble. Likewise, consider an agonistic conflict between Alex and Benji—both of whom are Cam's friends. According to the Alliance Hypothesis of Friendship, Cam should side with the friend who is more likely to take Cam's side in later conflicts, which ensures the continued survival of Cam's likeliest supporter (DeScioli & Kurzban, 2009; DeScioli, Kurzban, Koch, & Liben-Nowell, 2011).

Taken together, the embedded dyad framework and these adaptationist models imply that the benefits of friendship depend, in part, on how much one's friends value oneself relative to others, and thus that a friend's behavior toward others can influence one's own outcomes. For example, if Cam takes Alex's side in the above dispute, Cam is also siding against Benji. If people are affected by friends' behavior toward the self and toward others, then people should possess preferences for how friends behave toward the self and toward others. Specifically, insofar as friends generally radiate positive effects on the self—not only directly (via how they behave toward oneself) but also indirectly (via how they behave toward others)—people's friend preferences should be systematically predictable, such that (1) the friendship value of a target to the self is a function of the effects the target has (or is expected to have) on the self, both directly and also indirectly, and (2) the value of a trait in the target (e.g., the value of a friend's viciousness) to the self depends on the net effects (direct and/or indirect) that trait will have on the self, which is affected by toward whom that trait is directed. In other words, good friends should benefit or at least not hinder us, even as via their behavior toward other people.

This leads to predictions that extend, deviate from, and sometimes run counter to other accounts and intuition (e.g., people always eschew vicious friends). For example, imagine that your friend Amani demonstrates trustworthiness—but she does so by keeping in confidence your enemy's secret plan to harm you. Meanwhile, your friend Blanca demonstrates viciousness—but does so by deterring your enemy from harming you. As this example illustrates, in addition to the obvious and important (direct) effects that interactions with our friends can have on us, our friends' interactions with other people can also have major (indirect) effects on us as well. Note that, if you evaluate Amani and Blanca as friends via (a) intuition, (b) the inferences one might draw from canonical findings, or (c) cooperative accounts, you might conclude that Amani (trustworthy) is a better friend than Blanca (vicious). If you consider, however, the net (both direct and indirect) effects that Amani and Blanca have on your welfare, you would reach the opposite conclusion.

Previous work on friend preferences and cooperative accounts of partner choice generate multiple and sometimes competing predictions about how people will want ideal best friends to behave, as compared to our novel embedded dyad perspective.

First, work on friend preferences has, either explicitly or implicitly, addressed self-directed friend preferences—or how people want friends to behave toward them (see, e.g., Hall, 2012). We thus test whether (1) asking people how they want friends to behave (target-unspecified friend preferences) generates the same pattern of responses as asking how people want friends to behave toward them (self-directed friend preferences) (for a similar examination of mate preferences, see Lukaszewski & Roney, 2010). If unspecified friend preferences track self-directed (more than other-directed) friend preferences, this would be consistent with our argument that people prefer friends to behave differently toward the self versus others.

Second, and in line with canonical findings, we expect that people will generally prefer friends to be kind and trustworthy (but not vicious or indifferent)—both toward oneself and toward most others, as people tend to attach positive value to the welfare of other community members. Specifically, (2) for target-unspecified, self-directed, and neutral target-directed (i.e., stranger-directed) preferences, we predict that people will prefer friends to be kind and trustworthy, but not vicious, indifferent, or otherwise antisocial. Yet we also predict that (3) people will want friends to behave more prosocially toward oneself than toward others. After all, preferential prosociality may be part of the function of friends (e.g., DeScioli & Kurzban, 2009).

Further, the difference in preferred prosociality toward the self versus a stranger should be exaggerated when comparing preferences for how friends should behave toward oneself versus one's rivals. Indeed, people have rivalries and enemyships—relationships defined by competition and hatred (Adams, 2005; Holt, 1989)—which can harm one's outcomes (Aktipis et al., 2018; Günsoy, Cross, Uskul, Adams, & Gercek-Swing, 2015; Wiseman & Duck, 1995). Such relationships are often perceived as zero-sum; people believe they can be harmed when their enemies benefit (e.g., from others' kindness) and benefit when enemies are harmed (e.g., from others' viciousness; Aronson & Cope, 1968; Pietraszewski, 2016; Shaw, 2013). For a friend to achieve positive indirect effects on the self, that friend should not be kind toward one's enemy; rather, that friend should perhaps direct some degree of viciousness toward one's enemy. Thus, in some instances, we expect to see preferences for viciousness—counter to intuition, unlike in canonical findings, and at odds with cooperative account predictions. We test if (4a) people want friends who are appreciably more vicious toward one's enemies than they are toward oneself. We also test a stronger version of this prediction—(4b) that people prefer friends who are more vicious than kind toward one's enemies.4

We test these predictions in a two-wave study, in studies with varying designs, and in two nations. Methods were approved by university Institutional Review Board (IRB). All manipulations, focal (and exploratory) measures, and exclusions are noted. Data and syntax are on Open Science Framework (OSF) at https://osf.io/xeg48/.

Rolf Degen summarizing... In stark contrast to men, women preferred the competitive strategy of "levelling," where gains are split equally when pitted against a higher-performing partner

Levelling as a Female-Biased Competitive Tactic. Joyce F. Benenson & Henry Markovits. Evolutionary Psychological Science, February 22 2023. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-023-00355-2

Abstract: Direct contests occur more frequently between men than between women. This produces the conclusion that men are more competitive than women. However, no sex differences have been found in other more indirect competitive tactics such as self-promotion and reputation derogation. Qualitative evidence further suggests that one competitive tactic, levelling, may be more commonly used by girls and women than by boys and men. Levelling initially was defined as occurring when several lower-ranked men physically overpowered a higher-ranked man. When institutional support backs equality, however, levelling can be effectively employed by a lower-ranked individual against a higher-ranked individual. Qualitative evidence with humans indicates that beginning in early childhood and continuing through adolescence, individual levelling is used by girls and women more than by boys and men. To empirically test whether individual levelling is more common among women than men, we modified a popular economic game to include a levelling option. In a pre-registered study, we asked 252 women and 258 men from four developed world regions to play the game for monetary compensation three times: with an equal-performing, higher-performing, and lower-performing partner. In each game, participants chose which tactic they wanted to employ: a winner-take-all contest, levelling, or working alone. Rational payoff-maximizing decisions should lead more participants to choose contests with lower-performing partners and to select levelling with higher-performing partners. No sex differences occurred in choice of contests with lower-performing partners, but more women than men employed levelling with higher-performing partners, supporting our hypothesis. Despite sex-biased preferences for competitive tactics, overall no sex differences arose in payoff maximizing decisions.

We find that winning more in the lottery increases the probability of meeting friends on most days, which is consistent with the complementary effect of income on the strength of social ties

Does money strengthen our social ties? longitudinal evidence of lottery winners. Joan Costa-Font and Nattavudh Powdthavee. Rationality and Society, February 21, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1177/10434631231159567

Abstract: We study the effect of lottery wins on the strength of social ties and its different types, including support networks, in the United Kingdom. On average, we find that winning more in the lottery increases the probability of meeting friends on most days, which is consistent with the complementary effect of income on the strength of social ties. The opposite is true with regards to social ties held for more instrumental reasons such as talking to neighbours. Winning more in the lottery also lessens an individual support network consistently with a substitution of income and support network. However, further robustness checks reveal that such average lottery effects are driven by individuals exhibiting very large wins only, thus suggesting that small to medium-sized wins (below £10k) may not be enough to change people’s social ties and support network in a substantial way.

Men with pretty faces were perceived as—and tended to rate themselves—as less paternally involved

Bartlome, Ronja I., and Anthony J. Lee. 2023. “Facial Attractiveness, but Not Facial Masculinity, Is Used as a Cue to Paternal Involvement in Fathers.” PsyArXiv. February 21. doi:10.31234/osf.io/7pj8w

Abstract: Facial femininity in men is purportedly used as a cue by women as a signal of paternal involvement. However, evidence for this claim is questionable. Previous findings have shown that paternal involvement is linked to testosterone, but have not investigated facial masculinity directly, while other studies have found that facial masculinity is negatively associated with perceptions of paternal involvement but do not assess the accuracy of this judgement. Here, we assess whether facial masculinity in men is used as a cue to paternal involvement, and whether this cue is accurate. We collected facial photographs of 259 men (156 of which were fathers) who also completed self-report measures of paternal involvement. Facial images were then rated by a separate group of raters on facial masculinity, attractiveness, and perceived paternal involvement. Shape sexual dimorphism was also calculated from the images using geometric morphometrics. We found that facial masculinity was not associated with perceptions of paternal involvement, nor was it related with self-reported paternal involvement. Interestingly, facial attractiveness was negatively associated with perceptions of paternal involvement, and we found partial evidence that facial attractiveness was also negatively associated with self-reported paternal involvement. These findings challenge the hypothesis that sexual dimorphism is used as a cue to paternal involvement, and perhaps indicate that facial attractiveness is more important for this judgement instead.

The Nature of Long-Term Unemployment: Predictability, Heterogeneity and Selection

The Nature of Long-Term Unemployment: Predictability, Heterogeneity and Selection. Andreas I. Mueller & Johannes Spinnewijn. NBER Working Paper 30979, Feb 2023. DOI 10.3386/w30979

Abstract: This paper studies the predictability of long-term unemployment (LTU) and analyzes its main determinants using rich administrative data in Sweden. Compared to using standard socio-demographic variables, the predictive power more than doubles when leveraging the rich data environment. The largest gains come from adding job seekers' employment history prior to becoming unemployed. Applying our prediction algorithm over the unemployment spell, we show that dynamic selection into LTU explains at least half of the observed decline in job finding. While the within-individual declines are small on average, we find substantial heterogeneity in the individual-level declines and thus reject the commonly used proportional hazard assumption. Applying our prediction algorithm over the business cycle, we find that the cyclicality in average LTU risk is not driven by composition but rather by within-individual cyclicality and that individual rankings are relatively persistent across years. Finally, we evaluate the implications of our findings for the value of targeting unemployment policies and how these change over the unemployment spell and the business cycle.

Surprise for the authors: People are willing to enact and excuse inconsistency in their moral lives; we discuss how to reconcile this observation with the foundational social psychological principle that people hate inconsistency

Moral inconsistency. Daniel A. Effron, Beth Anne Helgason. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, February 21 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2022.11.001

Abstract: We review a program of research examining three questions. First, why is the morality of people's behavior inconsistent across time and situations? We point to people's ability to convince themselves they have a license to sin, and we demonstrate various ways people use their behavioral history and others—individuals, groups, and society—to feel licensed. Second, why are people's moral judgments of others' behavior inconsistent? We highlight three factors: motivation, imagination, and repetition. Third, when do people tolerate others who fail to practice what they preach? We argue that people only condemn others' inconsistency as hypocrisy if they think the others are enjoying an “undeserved moral benefit.” Altogether, this program of research suggests that people are surprisingly willing to enact and excuse inconsistency in their moral lives. We discuss how to reconcile this observation with the foundational social psychological principle that people hate inconsistency.

Keywords: Behavioral ethicsMoral judgmentInconsistencyHypocrisyMoral licensingDishonestyPrejudice

Psychopathic Traits Are Associated with Mimicking Prosocial Personality Traits in Dating Contexts

The Chameleons of Dating: Psychopathic Traits Are Associated with Mimicking Prosocial Personality Traits in Dating Contexts. Kristopher J. Brazil, Destiny Cloutier, Nicole De Las Llagas, Samantha Grace McMahon, Victoria Benevides, Angela S. Book & Beth A. Visser. Evolutionary Psychological Science, February 20 2023. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-023-00356-1

Abstract: Psychopathic traits are associated with lower levels of Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, and Agreeableness from the HEXACO model, which capture antisocial traits. Yet, individuals with psychopathic traits—men in particular—appear to successfully acquire dating partners despite these traits. We examine in this paper whether men higher in psychopathic traits might shift their personality traits to mimic those that are more prosocial to appear more attractive to prospective dates. Participants were 165 heterosexual college men who completed the HEXACO and then watched a woman’s dating video. After the video, participants completed the HEXACO again with the instructions to be appealing to the woman in the video. Results showed that psychopathic traits were associated with greater increases in Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, and Agreeableness, and fewer increases in Extraversion across the HEXACO profiles. The observed increases in Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, and Agreeableness may represent men’s attempts at mimicking prosocial personality traits to appear more attractive as a potential partner. The findings suggest that psychopathic traits may affect men’s willingness to deceptively enhance prosocial personality traits, possibly as a means to appeal to prospective partners.

Rationing and Climate Change Mitigation: We argue that the rejection of markets, and a commitment to fair shares, is a key part of the value of rationing

Rationing and Climate Change Mitigation. Nathan Wood,Rob Lawlor & Josie Freear. Ethics, Policy & Environment, Feb 19 2023. https://doi.org/10.1080/21550085.2023.2166342

Abstract: In this paper, we argue that rationing has been neglected as a policy option for mitigating climate change. There is a broad scientific consensus that avoiding the most severe impacts of climate change requires a rapid reduction in global emissions. We argue that rationing could help states reduce emissions rapidly and fairly. Our arguments in this paper draw on economic analysis and historical research into rationing in the UK during (and after) the two world wars, highlighting success stories and correcting misconceptions. However, although the empirical details play an important role, the paper is primarily based on philosophical and ethical argument and policy analysis, particularly highlighting the normative assumptions behind policy choices.

We build on Hugh Upton’s work in healthcare ethics, rejecting a broader conception of rationing which conceals significant distinctions between policy options, obscuring the specific advantages of an egalitarian conception of rationing. While some argue for the modernisation of rationing, introducing tradable allowances, we argue that the rejection of markets, and a commitment to fair shares, is a key part of the value of rationing, and precisely what made rationing attractive to the public in the 1940s.

Keywords: Tradable energy quotasCarbon allowancesCarbon TaxEnergy justiceFairnessEquality

5. Objections and Replies

[...]

Keynes and Hayek recognized that there were concerns about the fairness of tax-based solutions, given that it would not be sufficient to tax the rich. For example, according to Bruce Caldwell, Keynes recognized that, if this was to be effective, the ‘tax would have to be extended to the working classes’ because

a tax on the rich would not sufficiently reduce expenditure, so it would not help with the problem of excess demand for consumption goods. (Caldwell & Caldwell, Citation1997 p. 34)

Caldwell states that Keynes tried to ‘soften this unpopular but inevitable truth’ with the ‘novel idea of “deferred pay” or “compulsory savings” provision’ (Caldwell & Caldwell, Citation1997). Instead of taking money away from people permanently, in taxation, money would be taken from people but put into savings that they would only be able to access after the war. This ingenious idea would limit people’s ability to consume but would not permanently deprive anyone of their money. In the case of climate change, however, it would not be clear when – if ever – we would be able to return people’s savings. But if this is what is necessary to make Keynes’ solution palatable, it should be clear that it is the tax-based solution, and not rationing, that becomes less attractive if a permanent solution is needed.

[...]

Low mood leads to the consumption of more negative information online which in turn leads to worse mood, and so on

Kelly, Christopher A., and Tali Sharot. 2023. “Knowledge-seeking Reflects and Shapes Well-being.” PsyArXiv. February 18. doi:10.31234/osf.io/yd6j5

Abstract: Humans are spending an increasing amount of time searching for knowledge online. It is thus imperative to examine whether and how this activity impacts well-being. Here, we test the hypothesis that the affective properties of the knowledge sought effect well-being, which in turn alters knowledge-seeking, forming a self-reinforcing loop. To that end, we quantified the affective properties of text in webpages participants (N = 947) chose to browse and related these to their well-being. We find that browsing more negative information was associated with worse mental-health and mood. By manipulating the webpages browsed and measuring mood and vice versa, we reveal that the relationship is causal and bi-directional. Moreover, when participants were made aware of the affective nature of webpages before browsing, they choose to access more positive and less negative webpages. These findings provide a potential method for assessing and enhancing human welfare in the digital age.

Are women more empathetic than men? According to EEG estimations of sex/gender differences in empathic ability, it seems they are not

Are women more empathetic than men? Questionnaire and EEG estimations of sex/gender differences in empathic ability. Chenyu Pang, Wenxin Li, Yuqing Zhou, Tianyu Gao, Shihui Han. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, nsad008, Feb 18 2023. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsad008

Abstract: The debate regarding whether women are more empathetic than men has broad scientific, social, and clinical implications. However, previous independent questionnaires and brain imaging studies that tested different samples reported inconsistent results regarding sex/gender differences in empathic ability. We conducted three studies to investigate sex/gender differences in empathic ability using large-sample questionnaire and electroencephalography (EEG) measures. We showed that estimation of empathic ability using the interpersonal reactivity index questionnaire showed higher rating scores in women than men in all studies. However, our EEG measures of empathy, indexed by both phase-locked and non-phased locked neural responses to others' painful (vs. neutral) facial expressions, support a null hypothesis of the sex/gender difference in empathic ability. In addition, we showed evidence that priming social expectations of women and men's ability to share and care about others' feelings eliminated the sex/gender difference in questionnaire measures of empathic ability. Our large-sample EEG results challenge the notion of women's superiority in empathy that is built based on subjective questionnaire measures which are sensitive to social desirability. Our findings indicate that whether the notion of women’s superiority in empathic ability reflects a biological/social difference between women and men or a gender-role stereotype remains an open question.

Keywords: Electroencephalography, Empathy, Questionnaire, Sex/Gender, Social expectation

Contemporary sex differences in partner preferences are maintained by several psycho-biological mechanisms that evolved in conjunction, including not only sexual but also romantic attraction

The Role of Sexual and Romantic Attraction in Human Mate Preferences. Meike Scheller et al. The Journal of Sex Research, Feb 16 2023. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2023.2176811

Abstract: Sex differences in mate preferences are ubiquitous, having been evidenced across generations and cultures. Their prevalence and persistence have compellingly placed them in the evolutionarily adaptive context of sexual selection. However, the psycho-biological mechanisms contributing to their generation and maintenance remain poorly understood. As such a mechanism, sexual attraction is assumed to guide interest, desire, and the affinity toward specific partner features. However, whether sexual attraction can indeed explain sex differences in partner preferences has not been explicitly tested. To better understand how sex and sexual attraction shape mate preferences in humans we assessed how partner preferences differed across the spectrum of sexual attraction in a sample of 479 individuals that identified as asexual, gray-sexual, demisexual or allosexual. We further tested whether romantic attraction predicted preference profiles better than sexual attraction. Our results show that sexual attraction accounts for highly replicable sex differences in mate preferences for high social status and financial prospects, conscientiousness, and intelligence; however, it does not account for the enhanced preference for physical attractiveness expressed by men, which persists even in individuals with low sexual attraction. Instead, sex differences in physical attractiveness preference are better explained by the degree of romantic attraction. Furthermore, effects of sexual attraction on sex differences in partner preferences were grounded in current rather than previous experiences of sexual attraction. Taken together, the results support the idea that contemporary sex differences in partner preferences are maintained by several psycho-biological mechanisms that evolved in conjunction, including not only sexual but also romantic attraction.

Discussion

While sex differences in human mate preferences have been observed across cultures and generations (Buss, Citation1989; Shackelford et al., Citation2005; Walter et al., Citation2020) the proximate factors contributing to its generation and maintenance remain less well understood (but see Alexander et al., Citation2011; Balthazart, Citation2011, Citation2016; Little, Jones et al., Citation2011; Scheller et al., Citation2021). Attraction, especially sexual attraction, is a psycho-biological mechanism that is thought to guide interest, desire or the affinity toward specific features of others and establishes an individual’s preference profile. In order to better understand how sex and sexual attraction interact, and whether other forms of attraction (i.e., romantic) may explain persistent patterns in mate preferences, we assessed how partner preferences differ across the spectrum of sexual attraction intensity.

In individuals that experience high sexual attraction we replicated well-documented sex differences in partner preferences that are linked to sexual reproduction. Here, heterosexual men rated physical attractiveness higher than women, while the latter placed higher importance on social status and financial prospects than men. This is in line with a large body of research showing sex differences in preferences for these traits (Bech-Sørensen & Pollet, Citation2016; Buss, Citation1989; Walter et al., Citation2020). The data-driven nature of the factor composition indicated two further partner characteristic factors that were described as conscientiousness (ambition, emotional stability/maturity, reliability, diligence, humor, and sociability) and intelligence/education (be educated, similar education, intelligence). Here, individuals that experienced high sexual attraction showed significant sex differences in preferences, with women rating conscientiousness as more important, while men gave higher importance ratings for intelligence and education. Indeed, previous studies have found conscientiousness, ambition and emotional stability to be more highly valued by women (Botwin et al., Citation1997; Buss & Schmitt, Citation2019; Furnham, Citation2009); however, the enhanced importance ratings of intelligence and education in allosexual men seem to contradict previous findings in hetero-allosexual samples in which women valued education more than men (Buss & Schmitt, Citation2019; Shackelford et al., Citation2005). Lippa (Citation2007), however, reported that heterosexual women rated intelligence lower than lesbian women and gay men, which may suggest that sexual intensity and orientation may indeed mediate intelligence importance ratings. As women show lower average sexual attraction levels than men and often show higher levels of non-exclusivity in their sexual orientation (e.g., bisexual preferences; Diamond, Citation2016), the effect of diversity in sexual intensity and orientation in women may not have been captured in previous studies, but impacted the absolute importance ratings. However, this would likely have affected all partner characteristics, and future research into the effects of sexual orientation and intensity on the importance of specific partner traits is needed to elucidate whether these effects replicate in a different sample.

Effects of Sexual and Romantic Attraction on Sex Differences in Partner Preferences

Notably, our results show that sexual and romantic attraction both help explain the maintenance of sex-specific mate preference differentiation. Self-reported preferences for all four partner traits were significantly or marginally significantly modulated by sex as well as either sexual or romantic attraction. Furthermore, the results support the notion that both forms of attraction can function independently (Diamond, Citation2003, Citation2004; Fisher et al., Citation2005, Citation2006) and do not affect partner preferences in the same way. While sex-specific differences in preferences for a high social status and good financial prospects (women > men), as well as intelligence and education (men > women) were reduced in individuals with low or no sexual attraction, the increased preferences for a conscientious partner in women was more strongly modulated by romantic than sexual attraction. Surprisingly, the only sex-specific difference that sexual attraction could not account for was the heightened preference for a physically attractive partner in men. Even individuals that reported to have never experienced sexual attraction before showed a sex difference in the preference for this partner trait that was of similar magnitude (β = −0.41) as that present in allosexual individuals (β = −0.39). Instead, sex-specific physical attractiveness preferences were more dependent on the degree of romantic attraction, highlighting the importance of physical attractiveness in romantic contexts. Note that, while the interaction of romantic attraction and sex was only marginally significant (p = .06), effect sizes suggested that the average explanatory power of romantic attraction was 25 times higher than that of sexual attraction.

This suggests that physical attractiveness may serve more functions than providing good genes. In fact, the heightened preference that men express for physical attractiveness even extends outside of the mating context, affecting other social bonds such as friendships. Here, men place more importance than women on physical attractiveness in opposite-sex friends (Lewis et al., Citation2011). Perhaps this is due to the indirect benefit gained from being associated with physically attractive individuals. That is, partnering with a physically attractive woman may enhance the perception of someone’s own social status and mate value, thereby attaching higher chances of partnering with other attractive woman in the long term (C. Anderson et al., Citation2001; R. C. Anderson & Surbey, Citation2014; see supplement S3 for indirect appearance belief effects).

Sexual attraction is not a prerequisite for romantic attraction. In fact, many individuals with reduced sexual desire still experience romantic attraction and look to engage in romantic relationships with others (Antonsen et al., Citation2020). However, the specific preferences for such romantic, non-sexual relationships may differ. For instance, women with low sexual attraction placed more importance on intelligence and education, and less importance on physical attractiveness, status and financial prospects or conscientiousness than women with higher sexual attraction. At the same time, men with low sexual attraction placed less importance on all partner characteristics, except social status and financial prospects, which already received the lowest importance rankings amongst all character traits. Our results show that sex differences in preferences for conscientiousness and physical attractiveness are better explained by romantic attraction, while those in social status/resources and intelligence are better explained by sexual attraction. This pattern may be explained by the types of benefits accrued in different relationship contexts (Buss & Schmitt, Citation1993; Li, Citation2007; Regan et al., Citation2000). For example, although previous research has often noted potential good-gene benefits from short-term partnerships, a long-term romantic relationship with a conscientious and physically attractive partner would provide commitment, investment, and potentially good gene benefits to offspring. Indeed, as romantic attraction is a crucial factor facilitating pair-bonding and (parental) care in monogamous relationships we might also expect that physical attractiveness will be important if there are associated benefits to offspring. Our data may suggest that, if sexual attraction is associated with short term mating (Edlund et al., Citation2021; Li, Citation2007), perhaps the increased preferences for status/resources reflect more material direct benefits from such partnerships.

Furthermore, our data showed that, while sexual and romantic orientation (directionality) were mostly aligned in allosexual individuals, the correlation was markedly lower among those with lower sexual attraction ratings. This divergent sexual and romantic orientation again suggests that sexual attraction and romantic attraction operate independently not only via their intensity but also their orientation (Antonsen et al., Citation2020; Diamond, Citation2004; Tennov, Citation1998).

Limitations

Firstly, the AIS score was used as an indicator of progressively decreasing sexual attraction in the present study. However, it was primarily developed to differentiate those identifying as asexual from those who do not (Yule et al., Citation2015). As the AIS incorporates further measures that go beyond mere sexual attraction (such as sex-related disgust, sexual behavior avoidance, or sexual identity), it captures a wider experience of reduced sexual attraction and interest. In order to ensure that the main feature of interest i.e., reduced sexual attraction, was the modulating factor, we included a second, isolated measure of sexual attraction intensity, along with a measure of romantic attraction intensity. Here, participants were asked to indicate how strongly they felt sexually or romantically attracted to men and to women on a 7-point Likert scale. Comparing our findings from the first analysis using AIS scores and the second analysis using raw sexual attraction intensity scores, we found that results were similar across both analyses: both AIS scores and sexual attraction intensity show no interaction with sex in explaining preferences for physical attractiveness, while they both explain sex differences in the preferences for social status, conscientiousness, and intelligence (note that the inverse coefficients result from low sexual attraction being indicated by high AIS scores). This suggests that, while the AIS score offers a more fine-grained and experience-dependent measure of sexual attraction, desire and interest, sexual attraction alone is a large contributing factor to the expression of specific partner preferences.

Secondly, while sexual attraction is considered here as a psycho-biological mechanism that evolved to maintain partner preferences that adapted to evolutionary reproductive pressures, reduced sexual attraction does not automatically equate to a lowered desire to procreate. That is, individuals with reduced sexual attraction may not seek sexual encounters for pleasure but may still express the desire to have and raise children. If the desire is not reduced, this can suggest that partner preferences in people with reduced sexual attraction may not be targeted at a partner with whom genetic material or resources are exchanged to provide for offspring. Instead, the alteration in partner preferences might be driven by other factors, depending on the function of the partnership. Indeed, previous research suggests that the function of a partnership, such as in short-term or long-term mating, alters mate preferences (Bode & Kushnick, Citation2021; Jonason et al., Citation2013; Li, Citation2007). However, we observed, on average, a reduced desire to have and raise children across sexual orientation groups with low sexual attraction (demi-, gray- and asexuals), compared to individuals with high sexual attraction (see supplement S6). This suggests that reduced sexual desire and reduced desire to have and raise children with a partner may shape the expression of specific partner preferences.

We appraise the empirical claims claiming that implicit bias deeply affects legal proceedings and practices, and that training can be used to reduce that bias; we find that these claims carry many indicia of unreliability

Jason Chin, Alexander Holcombe, Kathryn Zeiler, Patrick Forscher & Ann Guo, Metaresearch, Psychology, and Law: A Case Study on Implicit Bias (2023). SSRN Feb 15 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4360335

Abstract: When can scientific findings from experimental psychology be confidently applied to legal issues? And when applications have clear limits, do legal commentators readily acknowledge them? To address these questions, we survey recent findings from an emerging field of research on research (i.e., metaresearch). We find that many aspects of experimental psychology’s research and reporting practices threaten the validity and generalizability of legally relevant research findings, including those relied on by courts and policy-setting bodies. As a case study, we appraise the empirical claims relied on by commentators claiming that implicit bias deeply affects legal proceedings and practices, and that training can be used to reduce that bias. We find that these claims carry many indicia of unreliability. Only limited evidence indicates that interventions designed to reduce prejudicial behavior through implicit bias training are effective, and the research area shows many signs of publication bias. To examine whether law journal articles are acknowledging these limits, we collected a sample of 100 law journal articles mentioning “implicit bias training” published from 2017-2021. Of those 100 articles, 58 recommend implicit bias training and only 8 of those 58 express any skepticism about its effectiveness. Overall, only 19 articles express skepticism about implicit bias training. We end with recommendations for law journal authors, researchers, and practitioners towards more credible application of psychology findings in law research and policy. Our focus is on how empirical research can be best used to solve our most important social issues including racism.